THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


Hifcrarjj  —  13 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
HISTORY 


BY 

A.  D.  WHITE,  W.  F.  ALLEN,  C.  K.  ADAMS,  J.  W.  BURGESS 

J.  R.  SEELEY,    H.  B.  ADAMS,    E.  EMERTON 

Q.  S.  MORRIS,  R.  T.  ELY,  A.  B.  HART 

W.   C.    COLLAR,    J.   T.    CLARKE 

W.  E.  FOSTER,  AND  OTHERS 


EDITED,  WITH  INTRODUCTION,  BY 

G.  STANLEY  HALL 


SECOND  EDITION,  ENTIRELY  RECAST  AND 
REWRITTEN 


D.   C.   HEATH   &    CO.,    PUBLISHERS 
BOSTON        NEW  YORK        CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  1883, 
BT  GINN,  HEATH,  &  CO, 


COPYRIGHT,  1884, 
BY  GINN,  HEATH,  fc  OO. 


Education 
Library 


CONTENTS. 


FAGK. 

INTRODUCTION .      v 

By  the  EDITOR. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  AMERICAN  HISTORY 1 

By  Dr.  A.  B.  HART,  Harvard  University. 

THE  PRACTICAL  METHOD  IN  HIGHER  HISTORICAL  INSTRUC 
TION 31 

By  Professor  EPHRAIM  EMERTON,  of  Harvard  University. 

ON  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  POLITICAL  ECONOMY    ....     61 

By  Dr.  RICHARD  T.  ELY,  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

HISTORICAL  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  COURSE  OF  HISTORY  AND 
POLITICAL  SCIENCE  AT  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY      ....    73 

By  President  ANDREW  D.  WHITE,  Cornell  University. 

ADVICE  TO  AN  INEXPERIENCED  TEACHER  OF  HISTORY  ...    77 

By  W.  C.  COLLAR,  A.M.,  Head  Master  of  Roxbury  Latin  School. 

A  PLEA  FOR  ARCHAEOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION 89 

By  JOSEPH  THACHER  CLARKE,  Director  of  the  Assos  Expedition. 

THE  USE  OF  A  PUBLIC  LIBRARY  IN  THE  STUDY  OF  HISTORY  .  105 

By  WILLIAM  E.  FOSTER,  Librarian  of  the  Providence  Public  Library.  . 

SPECIAL  METHODS  OF  HISTORICAL  STUDY 113 

By  Professor  HERBERT  B.  ADAMS,  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  STATE  AND  OF  HISTORY    ....  149 

By  Prof.  GEORGE  8.  MORRIS,  Michigan  and  Johns  Hopkins  Universities. 

THE  COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  HISTORY,  ROMAN  LAW,  AND 
POLITICAL  ECONOMY  AT  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY     .     .     .  167 

By  HENRY  E.  SCOTT,  Harvard  University. 


12S725S 


iv  CONTENTS. 

PAOE. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 193 

By  Professor  J.  R.  SEELEY,  Cambridge  University,  Eng. 

ON  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  HISTORY 203 

By  Professor  C.  K.  ADAMS,  Michigan  University. 

ON   METHODS   OF   HISTORICAL   STUDY  AND    RESEARCH   IN 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 215 

By  Professor  JOHN  W.  BURGESS,  Columbia  University. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 22'.} 

WHY  DO  CHILDREN  DISLIKE  HISTORY? 227 

By  THOMAS  WENTWORTH  HIOGINSON. 

GRADATION   AND   THE    TOPICAL    METHOD   OF    HISTORICAL 

STUDY 231 

PART  I.  —  HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES     .     .  239 

II.  —  BOOKS  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING 296 

III.  —  SCHOOL  TEXT-BOOKS 303 

SUPPLEMENT 309 

HISTORY  TOPICS 323 

By  Professor  W.  F.  ALLEN,  Wisconsin  University. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  (see  special  index  to  this 
article) 337 

By  Rev.  JOHN  ALONZO  FISHER,  Johns  Hopkins  University. 


I^TEODUOTION. 


r  1 1HIS  book  was  intended  to  be  the  first  of  a  series  entitled 
a  Pedagogical  Library,  devoted  to  methods  of  teaching, 
one  volume  of  which  was  to  be  occupied  with  each  of  the 
more  important  branches  of  instruction  in  grammar  and  high 
schools.  The  design  and  plan  of  the  work  was  not  to  pro- 
duce systematic  treatises,  and  still  less  to  develop  anything 
ultimate  or  absolute  in  method ;  but  to  gather  together,  in 
the  form  most  likely  to  be  of  direct  practical  utility  to 
teachers,  and  especially  students  and  readers  of  history, 
generally,  the  opinions  and  modes  of  instruction,  actual  or 
ideal,  of  eminent  and  representative  specialists  in  each 
department.  The  present  volume  has  been  an  unremuner- 
ated  work  of  love  on  the  part  of  each  writer,  and  the  appear- 
ance of  subsequent  volumes  in  the  series  is  not  yet  assured. 
It  should  be  added  that  the  articles  are  printed  in  the  order 
in  which  they  were  received  by  the  editor. 

Teachers  in  whom  a  methodic  interest  has  been  awakened 
will  find  many  useful  hints  in  the  following  books,  pamphlets, 
and  articles :  — 

Georg   Gottfried    Gervinus.      Grundziige   der   Historik.      Leipzic, 

1837.     pp.  95. 
F.  Jacobi.     Grundziige  einer  neuen  Methode  f  iir  den  vaterlandischeu 

Geschichtsunterricht  iu  deutschen  Schulen.     Niirnberg,  1839. 


Vi  INTRODUCTION. 

F.  Stiehl.      Der  vaterlandische    Geschichtsunterricht   in   unseren 

Elementarschulen .     Koblenz,  1842. 
.P.   W.  Miguel.     Beitrage  eines  mit  der  Herbart'schen  Padagogik 

befreundeten    Schulmannes   zur    Lehre  vom    biographischen 

Geschichtsunterricht  auf  Gymnasien.     Aurich,  1847. 
LobelL     Grundziige  einer  Methodik  des  geschichtlichen  Unterrichts 

auf  Gymnasien.     Leipzig,  1847. 
C.  Peter.     Der  Geschichtsunterricht  auf  Gymnasien.     Ein  metho- 

discher  Versuch.     Halle,  1849. 

W.  Assman.     Das  Studium  der  Geschichte.     Braunschweig,  1849. 
H.  v.  Sybel.     Ueber  den  Stand  der  neueren  deutschen  Geschicht- 

schreibung.     Marburg,  1856. 
/.  F.  C.  Campe.     Geschichte  und  Unterricht  in  der  Geschichte. 

Leipzig,  1859. 
Friedrich   Karl  Biedermann.      Der   Geschichts-Unterricht   in   der 

Schule,  seine  Mangel  und  ein  Vorschlag  zu  seiner  Reform. 

Braunschweig,  1860.    pp.  45. 

G.  Weber.     Der   Geschichtsunterricht   in   Mittelschulen.     Heidel- 

berg, 1864. 
Anon.     Ueber  die  Nothwendigkeit  einer  griindlichen  Reform  des 

Lehrplans  filr  den  Geschichtsunterricht  auf  Real-  und  hoheren 

Biirgerschulen.     Neuwied,  1870. 

M.  Lazarus.     Ueber  die  Ideen  in  der  Geschichte.     Berlin,  1872.     . 
/.  G.  Droysen.     Grundriss  der  Historik.     Leipzig,  1868.     pp.  38. 
Rudolph  Foss,  Realschule  Director.     Wie  ist  der  Unterricht  in  der 

Geschichte  mit  dem  Geographischen  Unterricht  zu  verbinden. 

Dargelegt  an  der  Darstellung  der  Mark  Brandenburg.     Eine 

Anleitung  fiir  Lehrer   und  reiferen  Schiilern.      Mit  Karten. 

Berlin,  1874.     pp.  48. 
K.  F.  Eberhardt.     Zur  Methode  und  Technik  des  Geschichtsunter- 

richts  auf  den  Seminarien.     Eisenach,  1874. 
0.  A .  Griillich.     Beitrag  zur  Methodik  des  Geschichtsunterrichtea 

an  hoheren  Lehranstalten.     Lobau,  1874. 
C.   Radenhausen.      Osiris.      Weltgesetze   in   der   Weltgeschichte. 

Hamburg,  1875. 


INTRODUCTION.  vii 

F.  Muster,  Hauptlehrer  in  Kbln.    Die  Geschichte  in  der  Volkschule; 

eine  von  der  Diesterweg-Stiftung  in  Berlin  pramiirte  Concur- 

renzschrift.     Koln,  1876.     pp.  78. 
F.   Krieger.      Der  Geschichtsunterricht   in   Volks-,   Burger-  und 

Fortbildungsschulen.     Eine  Anleitung  zur  richtigen  Ertheil- 

ung  der  Geschichte.     Niirnberg,  1876. 
R.  Mayr.    Die  philosophische  Geschichtsauffassung  der  Neuzeit. 

Wien,  1877. 
F.  L.  W.  Herbst,  Recter  der  Kon.    Landeschule  Pforta.    Die  Neure 

und  Neueste  Geschichte  auf  Gymnasien.    Mainz,  1877.    pp.  40. 
Ottokar  Lorenz,  Wirkl.    Mitgleid  der  K.  Akademie  der  Wissen- 

schaften.      Friedrich   Christoph  Schlosser   und  ueber   einige 

Aufgaben  und  Principien   der   Geschichtschreibung.     Wien. 

1878.     pp.  91. 
Clemens  NohL   Ueber  die  Nothwendigkeit  einer  griindlichen  Reform 

des   Lehrplans  fiir   den  Geschichtsunterricht  auf  Real-  und 

hoheren  Biirgerschulen.     Neuweid. 

H.  Nohascheck.     Ueber  der  Geschichts-Unterricht  in  einer  Volk- 
schule von  acht  Klassen.    Ein  methodischer  Versuch.     Mainz, 

1878.    pp.  38. 
F.  Jodl.     Die  Culturgeschichtsschreibung,  ihre  Entwickelung  und 

ihr  Problem.     Halle,  1878. 
H.  Doer  gens.      Grundlinien   einer   Wissenschaft  der   Gesohichte. 

Leipzig,  1878. 
M.  Lazarus.    Erziehung  und  Geschichte.    Breslau  &  Leipzig,  1881. 

pp.  51. 
E.   F.    Oscar-Jdger.      Bemerkungen    ueber   den    Geschichtlichen 

Unterricht.      Beigabe  zur  dem   "Hilfsbuch  fiir  den  ersten 

Unterricht  in  alten  Geschichte."     Fiir  Lehrer  der  Geschichte 

an  Hoheren  Schulen.     Wiesbaden,  1882.     pp.  47. 
Anon.     Wie  Studirt  Man   classische   Philologie  und   Geschichte. 

Leipzic,  1884. 

Maurenbrecher.     Geschichte  und  Politik.     1884. 
Keferstein.     Historiches  Wissen  und  historiche  Bildung.     Ziller's 

pad.  Jahrbuch  XIII.,  p.  130,  et  seq. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Zillig.      Der  Geschichtliche  Unterricht  in  den  elementaren  Erzie- 

hung  Schulen.     Ziller's  pad.  Jahrbuch,  XIV.,  p.  89,  et  seq. 
K.   J.    Eberhardt.      Ueber   Geschichts-Unterricht  in    Rein's   pad. 

Studien.     Heft  4. 
E.  Blume.     Geschichts-Unterricht  auf  den  Seminarien  Rein's  pad. 

Studien. 
P.  Fre'dericq.     De  L'enseignement  Superieur  de  I'histoire  en  Alle- 

magne.     Revue  de  L'instruction  publique  en  Belgique,  1882. 

pp.  18-79 
P.   Fredericq.     L'enseignement    Superieur   de   I'histoire   a   Paris. 

Revue  Internationale  de  L'enseignement,  1883.  p.  742. 
See  also,  Alte  und  neue  Ansichten  ueber  die  Ziele  des  Geschichts- 
Unterrichts.  Von  F.  'Noack.  "  Padagogische  Archiv,"  1883,  Apr.  6. 
Der  Lernstoff  in  Geschichtlichen  Unterricht.  Von  E.  Stutzer.  Ibid. 
2  Aug.  Seiynobos,  Revue  Internationale,  1881,  X.,  and  also  in 
Revue,  Internationale  de  L'enseignement,  Tome  I.,  p.  565,  and 
Aug.,  1884.  Krauth's,  Revue  d'instruction  publique  en  Belgique, 
XIX.  The  Study  of  Histoi-y,  its  Lets  and  Hindrances,  by  E.  A . 
Freeman,  1879.  See  also  his  recent  inaugural  address  at  Oxford, 
both  of  which  are,  however,  little  but  reiterations  of  his  theory  of 
the  unity,  through  Roman  institutions,  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
history. 

In  America  nothing  has  heretofore  been  published  of  such 
value  as  "Methods  of  Historical  Study,"  by  Dr.  H.  B. 
Adams,  in  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies,  in  "His- 
torical and  Political  Science,"  which  he  edits.  Baltimore, 
1884.  pp.  136.  Also  C.  K.  Adams's  "Manual  of  Historical 
Study."  The  former  work  is  in  part  Dr.  Adams's  contri- 
bution to  the  present  volume.  See,  too,  Mr.  Atkinson's 
lectures  on  "  History  and  the  Study  of  History."  For 
teachers  of  the  young  Adams's  Historical  Chart,  and  for  all 
Tillinghast's  translation  of  Ploetz's  "Epitome  of  Ancient, 
Mediaeval,  and  Modern  History,"  Boston,  1884,  will  be  use- 


INTRODUCTION.  iX 

ful.  Also,  "  Instruction  in  History,"  by  Dr.  G.  Diesterweg, 
printed  in  the  first  edition  of  this  book,  but  omitted  and  now 
published  separately.  Boston,  1884. 

Many  of  the  systematic  German  treatises  on  pedagogy 
also  contain  suggestive  chapters  or  sections  devoted  to  tlio 
didactics  of  histo^  ;  of  these,  Kehr  and  Schrader  may  be 
mentioned  as  representatives. 

History  was  chosen  for  the  subject  of  the  first  volume  of 
this  educational  library  because,  after  much  observation  in 
the  schoolrooms  of  many  of  the  larger  cities  in  the  eastern 
part  of  our  country,  the  editor,  without  having  a  hobby 
about  its  relative  importance  or  being  in  any  sense  an  expert 
in  history,  is  convinced  that  no  subject  so  widely  taught  is, 
on  the  whole,  taught  so  poorly. 

Most  text-books  now  in  use  are  dry  compilations,  and  yet 
are  far  more  closely  adhered  to  than  even  the  best  should 
be  in  this  department.  Teachers  of  history  generally  give 
instruction  also  in  several  other  often  unrelated  branches  ; 
and,  worst  of  all  perhaps,  history  is  crowded  into  a  single 
term  or  year.  Two  radical  changes,  which  have  long  since 
been  found  practicable  in  schools  of  corresponding  grades  in 
Germany,  are  greatly  needed  here.  First,  there  should  be  in 
all  the  larger  towns  special  teachers,  who  should  go  from 
room  to  room,  or  from  one  schoolhouse  to  another,  and  give 
instruction  in  histon'  alone.  They  might  qualify  and  be  ex- 
amined in  higher  and  higher  grades  of  work,  and  this  would 
tend  to  give  to  their  vocation  a  professional  spirit  and  char- 
acter. It  is  not  impossible  that,  eventually  thus,  the  way  into 


X  INTRODUCTION. 

the  professors'  chairs  in  our  colleges  and  universities  might 
be  as  open  to  teachers  here,  who  have  worked  their  way  up 
through  such  an  apprenticeship,  as  it  is  in  Germany.  The 
teacher's  mind  must  be  kept  saturated  with  its  spirit,  stored 
with  copious  illustrations  of  its  varied  lessons,  by  wide  and 
diligent  reading,  or  history  cannot  be  taught  effectively  to 
the  young.  The  high  educational  value  of  history  is  too 
great  to  be  left  to  teachers  who  merely  hear  recitations,  keep- 
ing the  finger  on  the  place  in  the  text-book,  and  only  asking 
the  questions  conveniently  printed  for  them  in  the  margin  or 
back  of  the  book,  —  teachers,  too,  who  know  that  their 
present  method  is  a  good  illustration  of  how  history  ought 
not  to  be  taught,  and  who  would  do  better  if  opportunity 
were  afforded  them.  Nowhere  is  so  much  of  the  time  spent 
on  text-books  by  pupils  lost  on  school  artifacts,  mistaken 
for  perplexities  inherent  in  the  subject  itself.  When  we 
reflect  that  what  men  think  of  the  world  depends  on  what 
they  know  of  it,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  wider  altruistic 
and  ethical  interests,  which  it  is  a  special  function  of  history 
to  develop,  rarely  become  strong  enough  to  control  narrower 
and  more  isolated  and  selfish  aims  in  life. 

Secondly,  the  time  devoted  to  historical  study  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  should  be  increased.  So  slow  is  historical  com- 
prehension, and  so  independent  of  all  cram-work,  that  even 
the  time  now  given  to  history  would  probably  be  more  advan- 
tageously used  if  distributed  over  more  months  or  years,  by 
devoting  to  it  a  correspondingly  less  number  of  hours  pet 
week  ;  though  this  could  not  be  said  of  most  studies,  and  is 


LNTBODUCTION.  XI 

not  true  of  the  examinable  elements  in  this.  We  have  not 
yet  in  this  country  considered  the  problem  of  adapting  his- 
torical material  to  the  earlier  phases  of  the  development  of 
the  childish  mind  from  the  first  years  of  school  life,  as  Ziller 
and  his  pupils,  especially  Rein,  Pickel,  and  Scheller,  have 
done  in  their  recent  Padagogiscke  Studien.  The  child's  love 
of  stories,  they  hold,  is  the  earliest  manifestation  of  historic 
interest,  and  should  be  developed  by  systematic  story-telling, 
which,  since  the  much-lauded  invention  of  Herr  Giittenburg, 
has  become  a  lost  art.  So  important  is  this  art,  that  normal 
schools  should  give  special  training  in  it,  and  it  should  be 
made,  with  respect  to  young  classes,  the  culmination  of 
pedagogic  skill.  These  writers  have  selected  and  arranged 
twelve  of  Grimm's  tales,  and  would  bring  nearly  the  whole 
work  of  school  the  first  year  about  these,  upon  the  principle 
of  the  well-known  concentration  method  of  the  late  Professor 
Ziller.  They  are  to  be  told  and  retold,  and  then  reproduced 
by  the  children  item  by  item,  and  moral  and  religious  senti- 
ments, as  well  as  all  manner  of  material  information  and 
illustrative  object-lessons,  made  to  centre  about  them.  The 
next  year  connected  stories  from  Robinson  Crusoe  are  treated 
in  the  same  way,  till  the  child  comes  to  almost  identify  itself 
with  the  hero,  and  repeat  with  him  the  slow  progress,  not 
unlike  that  of  the  race,  from  destitution  to  comfort  and  com- 
parative civilization  by  the  use  of  powers  which  every  child 
feels  itself  possessed  of  and  as  competent  as  Robinson  to 
put  forth  under  like  circumstances  for  his  own  amelioration. 
Later  select  tales  from  the  Old  Testament  are  made  the  focal 


Xii  INTBODUCTION. 

points  of  the  school  work.  Thus  the  unity  of  the  child's 
mind  is  secured  from  distracting  special  studies,  which  with 
advancing  school  years  become  more  and  more  independent 
and  isolated.  Selections  from  the  Odyssey,  the  Norse  sagas, 
tales  from  Shakespeare,  Herodotus,  Livy,  Xenophon,  etc., 
follow,  —  all  stimulating  the  historical  sense,  and  creating 
centres  of  interest  before  technical  instruction  in  history 
begins. 

A  teacher  who  has  a  prescribed  period  of  history  in  which 
to  qualify  pupils  in  a  given  time  should  elect  a  method  with 
the  greatest  care.  For  certain  periods  and  for  Certain  ages 
it  may  be  best  to  group  all  the  material  about  the  biographies 
of  eminent  men  ;  for  others,  about  important  battles  ;  while 
a  purely  pragmatic  narrative  may  again  be  most  effective. 
With  somewhat  older  children,  the  investigating  method, 
which  follows  the  order  and  describes  the  process  of  search 
and  discovery  of  historic  facts ;  or  the  discussive  method, 
which  applies  a  body  of  historic  material  to  the  determina- 
tion or  elucidation  of  a  problem  of  the  present ;  or  the  other 
presentative  methods  which  Droysen  has  enumerated,  may 
have  peculiar  pedagogic  merit.  No  rules  can  be  laid  down 
here  or  anywhere  in  pedagogy  to  be  followed  blindly.  What 
is  essential  is  that  the  teacher  shall  know  and  ponder  many 
good  methods,  so  that  he  may  have  a  wide  repertory  of 
means  from  which  to  choose  the  best  for  the  attainment  of 
his  ends. 

A  purely  colorless  presentation  of  facts,  such  as  used  to 
be  postulated,  is  clearly  impossible  for  the  average  teacher, 


INTRODUCTION.  Xlll 

and,  could  it  be  secured,  would  rob  his  instruction  of  most  of 
its  value  and  interest,  —  and  yet  it  is  the  safest  of  all  ideals. 
Teachers  of  the  grades  here  contemplated  seem  just  now 
peculiarly  liable  to  hobbies  which  sometimes  actually  deform 
the  pupil's  historic  sense,  and  illustrate  the  danger  of  great 
ideas  to  minds  not  well  disciplined  for  them.  Some  who 
have  very  lately  caught  the  national  idea  of  Freeman,  Stubbs, 
etc.,  do  scanty  justice  to  Norman  influence  in  English  his- 
tory. Others,  who  have  realized  the  pregnant  sense  in  which 
"  history  is  past  politics,"  forget  the  other  sense  in  which 
the  history  of  the  world  has  been  at  nearly  every  point 
very  different  from  the  history  of  the  conscious  purposes 
of  the  leaders  in  its  movements,  and  that  "  while  men 
thought  they  were  doing  this  thing  by  these  means,  it  was 
later  seen  that  they  were  really  doing  quite  other  things 
by  very  different  means."  Physical  geography,  as  impor- 
tant perhaps  for  a  correct  understanding  of  historic  events 
as  some  knowledge  of  the  senses  and  the  brain  is  for 
mental  science,  is  very  apt  to  be  too  much  neglected  or, 
though  far  more  rarely,  to  be  made  too  prominent.  History, 
a  wise  teacher  has  said  in  substance,  is  neither  a  theophany, 
or  a  series  of  special  providences,  nor  a  play  of  absolute 
ideas  on  the  one  hand,  nor  the  product  of  material  necessity 
on  the  other.  This  dualism  is  not  normal,  and  a  true  peda- 
gogy, like  a  true  philosophy  of  history,  will  tend  to  reconcile 
and  not  to  emphasize  it.  If  a  teacher  feels  the  need  of  a 
philosophy  of  history  as  a  background  for  his  methods  and 
as  a  safeguard  against  one-sideduess,  he  will  hardly  find  a 


JQV  INTRODUCTION. 

saner  one  than  in  the  chapters  of  the  third  volume  of  Lotze's 
Microcosm,  which  opens  up  a  broad  and  safe  middle  way 
between  extremes,  like  those  of  Hegel  and  Helwald;  but 
let  him  remember  that  philosophic  ideas,  while  they  may 
often  enliven  historic  work,  are  dangerous  if  premature,  and 
should  be  made  centres  of  historic  interest  only  quite  late  in 
the  pupil's  mental  development. 

The  liberality  of  the  publishers  has  made  it  possible  to 
eliminate  from  the  second  about  half  the  material  of  the  first 
edition  and  to  substitute  new  matter  to  an  extent  which 
somewhat  enlarges  the  volume,  and  of  a  kind  which  it  is 
believed  so  increases  its  value  and  utility  that  readers  of 
the  old  edition  will  find  this  essentially  a  new  work.  If  the 
methods  detailed  in  the  first  edition  were  mainly  for  advanced 
historical  training,  or  for  teaching  ' '  not  so  much  histor}',  as 
how  to  study  history,"  the  present  collection  of  essays  will, 
it  is  hoped,  prove  of  service  to  teachers  of  all  grades. 

G.   STANLEY  HALL. 

JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY,  Dec.  16, 1884. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  AMERICAN  HISTOKY. 


BY  DR.  A.  B.  HART,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY. 


/CONSIDERING  the  thought  which  has  been  devoted  to 
^*-J  the  deduction  of  general  principles,  applicable  to  history 
as  a  science,  wherever  taught,  it  seems  almost  presuming  to 
assume  that  there  are  any  peculiar  methods  of  teaching 
American  history.  It  is  always  well,  however,  to  test 
principles  by  finding  out  whether  they  may  be  adapted  to 
a  particular  case ;  and  if  any  history  meets  with  special 
difficulties,  and  needs  a  special  treatment,  it  is  that  of  our 
own  country. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  almost  always  the  first,  and  often 
the  last,  branch  of  the  subject  to  be  pursued  at  all.  In  the 
second  place,  there  exists  not  only  a  negative  ignorance  as 
to  the  facts  on  which  it  is  based,  but  too  often  a  positive 
misinformation,  —  a  structure  to  be  pulled  down  before  one 
can  begin  to  build.  It  is  only  necessary  to  turn  to  the  Con- 
gressional Globe,  or  to  the  columns  of  a  newspaper,  to  find 
out  that  public  men  know  a  great  many  things  about  the 
history  of  the  United  States  which  never  happened.  Where 
there  is  good  will  to  learn  the  truth,  there  is  usually  an  un- 
trained helplessness  about  using  books.  Where  there  is 
discrimination,  and  a  readiness  to  choose  the  best,  there 
is  a  lack  of  trustworthy  authorities  in  compact  form.  The 
luminous  brief  histories  with  which  the  Germans  abound 
simply  do  not  exist  in  America.  After  1820,  there  is  no 
narrative  history  which  can  be  used  as  a  college  text-book ; 
and,  till  Von  Hoist  wrote,  there  was  no  critical  history 
whatever. 


2  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

Yet  no  countrj'  can  boast  of  a  richer  or  more  instructive 
past :  it  is  full  of  interesting  detail ;  it  has,  in  the  slavery 
contest,  the  most  dramatic  episode  of  the  century  ;  it  abounds 
in  questions  which  have  nowhere  else  been  worked  out ;  no 
other  government  ever  had  more  revenue  than  it  could  spend  ; 
no  other  country  ever  disposed  of  the  soil  of  half  a  continent ; 
no  other  people  ever  successfully  developed  a  strong  federa- 
tion. To  Americans  the  great  questions  of  national  policy 
are  of  peculiar  interest,  because  capable  of  personal  associa- 
tion. To  give  an  example :  one  of  the  students  at  Harvard, 
who  is  writing  a  thesis  on  the  fugitive  slave  law,  has  gone 
for  information  to  a  man  who  had  been  tried  under  that  law 
before  the  student's  father.  Thus  American  history  has,  at 
home,  a  presumption  in  its  favor.  It  is  important  not  only 
to  the  American,  but  for  any  student  of  political  science. 
It  appeals  to  that  practical  side  of  the  American  character, 
which  is  likely  to  prefer  a  subject  which  has  an  evident  use 
be}rond  collegiate  life.  Finally,  the  authorities  are  easy  to 
find,  wherever  there  is  a  librarj- ;  and  there  is  no  lack  of 
interesting  questions  waiting  for  investigators. 

American  history  will,  therefore,  be  studied  more  than 
other  history ;  it  is  not  learned  without  study ;  it  is  worth 
studying  for  itself;  it  appeals  to  Americans  ;  and  the  materials 
are  at  hand.  The  next  question  is,  How  shall  it  be  studied? 
The  question  naturally  divides  itself  into  a  discussion  of 
general  principles,  arrangement  and  division,  purpose,  point 
of  view,  manner  of  instruction,  helps  to  the  student,  and 
tests. 

First  of  all,  it  is  necessary  to  lay  down  certain  fundamental 
principles  in  such  form  as  to  leave  them  sharply  defined  in 
the  minds  of  the  students.  They  may  be  so  framed  as  to 
correct  a  few  of  the  more  dangerous  popular  errors  about 
the  real  relations  of  the  United  States  to  other  countries. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  3 

It  might  be  well  to  draw  up  and  print  some  such  list  as  the 
following :  — 

FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

1.  No  nation  has  a  history  disconnected  from  that  of  the  rest 
of  the  world :   the   United  States  is  closely  related,  in  point  of 
time,  with  previous  ages ;  in  point  of  space,  with  other  civilized 
countries. 

2.  Institutions  are  a  growth,  and  not  a  creation :  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  itself  is  constantly  changing  with  the 
changes  in  public  opinion. 

3.  Our  institutions  are  Teutonic  in  origin :  they  have  come  to 
us  through  English  institutions. 

4.  The  growth  of  our   institutions  has  been  from  local  to 
central :   the   general  government  can,  therefore,  be  understood 
only  in  the  light  of  the  early  history  of  the  country. 

5.  The  principle  of  union  is  of  slow  growth  in  America :  the 
Constitution  was  formed  from  necessity,  and  not  from  preference. 

6.  Under  a  federal  form  of  government  there  must  inevitably 
be  a  perpetual  contest  of  authority  between  the  States  and  the 
general  government :  hence  the  two  opposing  doctrines  of  States- 
rights  and  of  nationality. 

7.  National  political  parties  naturally  appeal  to  the  federal 
principle  when  in  power,  and  to  the  local  principle  when  out  of 
power. 

8.  When  parties  become  distinctly  sectional,  a  trial  of  strength 
between  a  part  of  the  States  and  the  general  government  must 
come  sooner  or  later. 

To  descend  from  the  abstract  to  the  concrete,  perhaps  no 
better  way  can  be  found  for  suggesting  a  method  for  the 
study  of  American  history  than  to  describe  the  methods 
actually  in  use  in  Harvard  College.  It  is  to  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  system  is  still  incomplete  and  imperfect,  and 
that  a  part  only  of  the  devices  to  be  enumerated  have  been 
put  into  operation. 


4  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

Beginning  with  1884,  two  full  courses,  each  consisting  of 
three  lectures  a  week,  will  be  given.  Together  they  are  to 
cover  the  whole  period  from  the  earliest  settlements  to  the 
Civil  War ;  although  intended  to  form  a  systematic  whole, 
each  is  to  be  complete  in  itself.  The  first  course  (1600-1789) 
is  intended  for  a  small  number  of  students,  and  will  be  sug- 
gestive rather  than  didactic.  The  point  of  view  will  be : 
first,  the  origin  of  our  local  institutions ;  and,  later  on,  the 
nature  of  the  Constitution,  as  illustrated  by  the  preceding 
history  of  the  United  Colonies  and  United  States.  The 
second  course  (1789-1861)  is  one  of  the  larger  electives  in 
college  ;  what  follows  may  be  considered  as  applying  more 
particularly  to  this  course,  —  the  history  of  the  United  States 
under  the  Constitution. 

From  1775  down,  a  course  on  American  history  ought  to  be 
primarily  for  instruction.  If  human  nature  were  otherwise, 
if  the  fitting  schools  gave  a  different  preparation,  another 
method  might  be  followed.  As  it  is,  few  students  know 
anything  positive  about  institutions  ;  how  should  they,  with- 
out any  good  elementary  text-books  ?  Our  political  treatises 
and  speeches  show  the  lack  of  knowledge,  and  the  danger  of 
generalizing  without  it.  Van  Buren's  "Political  Parties" 
is  an  example  of  a  book  which  thus  assumes  history  instead 
of  teaching  it.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  as  undesirable 
for  the  student  to  accept  the  instructor's  generalizations 
ready-made.  With  bright  students  it  is  perfectly  possible, 
after  putting  clearly  before  them  the  facts  and  the  deductions 
of  both  sides,  to  extract  from  them  an  independent  judg- 
ment. They  may  be  required  to  read  specific  references,  and 
then  to  submit,  in  brief  form,  a  written  opinion  embodying 
their  own  conclusions.  It  is,  of  course,  essential  not  to  turn 
the  lecture-room  into  a  primary  meeting  by  discussing  politi- 
cal parties  as  they  now  exist.  Part  of  the  duty  of  the 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  5 

instructor  is  to  point  out  the  evils  in  our  political  system  ; 
but  having  once  based  his  deduction  on  ascertained  facts, 
he  may  safely  leave  the  application  to  the  student.  The  sug- 
gestive method  is  not  to  be  left  out  of  sight ;  but  suggestions 
must  follow  and  not  precede  knowledge.  In  the  present 
state  of  the  preparatory  schools,  the  present  want  of  text- 
books, the  present  superficiality  of  more  general  works,  the 
present  mass  of  ill-digested  material,  if  the  instructor  does 
not  himself  supply  accurate  and  detailed  information,  his 
students  will  not  have  it. 

With  all  the  restrictions  thus  laid  upon  him,  it  is  still 
possible  for  the  instructor  to  select  a  point  of  view  which 
will  oblige  his  students  to  think,  and  to  see  the  relation  of 
one  part  of  history  to  another ;  it  is,  the  comparison  of  the 
past  with  the  present.  No  history  is  better  adapted  to  the 
method  than  our  own ;  no  treatment  lends  more  life  to  a 
course,  or  appeals  more  strongly  to  young  minds.  The  con- 
nection between  a  subject  under  discussion,  and  the  same 
subject  in  our  present  system,  is  always  useful  in  itself  and 
fructifj^ing  to  the  mind.  To  give  a  specific  instance :  After 
a  lecture  on  Jackson's  removals,  and  the  effect  of  the  system 
thus  introduced,  the  students  were  last  year  required  to 
submit  a  written  suggestion  for  a  remedy.  The  results  were 
crude,  but  thoughtful,  and  in  some  cases  shrewd  and  far- 
seeing.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  to  preserve  the 
consistency  of  the  course ;  it  is  a  mistake  to  work  from  the 
present  backward.  If  each  topic,  as  it  comes  up  in  its  logical 
order,  is  sketched  out  clear  to  its  present  status,  the  con- 
nection of  events  with  each  other  need  not  be  broken. 

The  only  practicable  form  of  instruction  at  Harvard  seems 
to  be  that  of  lectures.  The  classes  are  too  large  for  recita- 
tions, even  did  proper  text-books  exist.  In  lectures  alone 
can  the  instructor  arrange  the  proportions  of  the  course  him- 


8  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

self.  In  connection  with  lectures  the  student  may  be  led  to 
use  many  books,  instead  of  two  or  three,  or  half  a  dozen. 
The  lectures  are  all,  or  nearly  all,  delivered  by  the  instructor  ; 
it  is  only  in  rare  cases  that  a  student  may  have  looked  up  a 
subject  in  such  detail  that  he  can  profitably  lecture  (not  read 
a  thesis)  before  the  class.  The  method,  in  a  word,  is  the 
topical.  The  precise  scope  of  the  course  for  the  year  1883-84 
may  be  seen  by  the  following :  — 

TOPICS  FOR  A  COURSE  OF  EIGHTY-SIX  LECTURES  ON  THE  POLITI- 
CAL AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.1 

1.  Introductory.  —  Methods  of  the  course.    Suggestions  on  note- 
taking  and  on  habits  of  study. 

2.  Preliminary  Conceptions.  —  What  is  history  ?    What  is  a 
Constitution  ?    What  is  the  United  States  ? 

3.  Authorities.  —  Official  publications.      Legal.     Newspapers. 
Biographies.     Works  of  statesmen.     Constitutional  treaties.     Gen- 
eral histories. 

4.  Constitution  of  England  at  the  outbreak   of   the  Revolu- 
tion.    Theoretical.     Actual.     Conventional :  Esprit  des  Lois,  XL, 
chaps,  i.-vi.    Institutions  of  the  United  States  derived  from  Eng- 
land. 

5.  The  Colonies.  —  Government  by   England.     Local  govern- 
ment.   Application  of  English  law.     The  issue  in  the  Revolution. 

6.  Union  of  the  Colonies.  —  Early  schemes. 

7.  Colonial  Union  accomplished.  —  Difficulties  in  1775.    Rea- 
sons in  1775.    Origin  of  the  revolutionary  government.    Sovereign 
powers  exercised.    Limitations. 

8.  Independence.  —  Early  suggestions.   Preparatory  steps.   Na- 
ture and  bearing.    New  State  governments.     Union  older  than  the 
States. 

1  The  list  is  condensed  from  the  ' '  Outline ' '  printed  by  the  class  in 
1883-84  ;  only  those  required  references  appear  which  are  appended  to  the 
main  heads  of  the  lectures  ;  there  are  many  others  in  the  original.  The 
course  for  1881-85  begins  later,  and  comes  ten  years  further  down. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  < 

9.  The  Confederation.  —  Formation.    Powers.   Defects  :  Story, 
§265. 

10.  Conflicts  of  the  Confederation.  —  Theories  of  power  over 
States.     Attempts  to  assert  authority.    Violations  by  States.    Vio- 
lations by  Congress. 

11.  Weakness  of  the  States.  —  In  their  relations  to  the  people., 
In  the  relations  of  people  to  the  States. 

12.  Proposed  Amendment  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

—  By  grants  of  particular  powers.    By  grants  of  coercive  power. 
By  change  in  the  form  of  the  government. 

13.  The  Constitutional   Convention.  —  Call.      Preliminaries. 
Task.    Parties.    Sources.   Propositions.    Development  of  action  on 
individuals. 

14.  Scope  of  the  Constitution.  —  Questions  settled.   Questions 
unsettled.     Questions  imperfectly  settled. 

15.  Origin  and  Nature   of  the   Constitution.  —  Ratification. 
"  Who  made  the  Constitution  ?  "     "  What  is  the  Constitution  ?  " 

16.  The  United  States  in  1789.  —  Geography,  —  social,  eco- 
nomic, political.     Origin  of  parties. 

17.  Organization   of  the   Government.  —  Expiration   of  the 
Confederation  :  J.  C.,  xni.  170.     Elections  :  McMaster,  i.  525-32  ; 
Schouler,  i.  70-73,  82-85.    Congress :  Snow,  13-14.    The  executive  : 
Snow,  15-17.     The  judiciary :  Snow,  17-18. 

18.  Early    Constitutional    Questions.  —  Oath.      Citizenship. 
Amendments.     Indians.     Territories. 

19.  Acts  for  putting  into  Effect  Clauses  of  the  Constitution. 

—  Revenue  :  McMaster,  i.  544,  55;  Schouler,  i.  86-93, 187.    Naviga- 
tion and  commerce. 

20.  Same,   continued.  —  Defence   and  preservation   of    order. 
General  welfare  of  the  United  States. 

21.  Questions  relating  to  the  States.  —  Assumption  and  capi- 
tal:  McMaster,  1.574-85;    Von  Hoist,  I.  80-89.     Apportionment: 
Hildreth,  iv.  303 ;  Schouler,  i.  188-89. 

22.  Same,  continued.  —  Slavery  :  Von  Hoist,  i.  272-309.    Fugi- 
tive slaves :   Von  Hoist,  i.  309-15.     New  States  :  Hildrelh,  iv.  147, 
209,  268,  326.    Suits  against  States  :  Schouler,  i.  273-74. 

23.  Constitutional  Questions  of  National   Policy.  —  Proteo 


»  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

tion :   Hildreth,  iv.  65-76 ;    Schouler,   i.   87-90.     National  bank : 
Schouler,  i.  159-62  ;  Snow,  24-27 ;  Story,  §§  1231-66. 

24.  Washington's    First    Administration.  —  Appointments  : 
Schouler,  i.  93,  107-9.     Washington's  character  and  policy :   Von 
Hoist,  n.  80-83.     Quarrels  in  the  cabinet :  Morse's  Jeff.,  96-145  ; 
Lodge's  Ham.,  140-48.     Investigation  of  Hamilton  :  Lodge,  148-52 ; 
Schouler,  i.  175,  216-20. 

25.  Foreign   Relations :   France   and   England.  —  Neutrality 
question  :   Von  Hoist,  i.  106-12  ;  Lodge's  Ham.,  153-66.     Complica- 
tions with  France  :  Schouler,  i.  246-55,  and  Lodge,  166-75  ;  Morse's 
Jeff.,  146-65,  and  Von  Hoist,  i.  113-18.     Complication  with  Eng- 
land :    Hildreth,   iv.    440-43.      Preparations    for    war :    Schouler, 
i.  266-73  ;  Lodge,  175-80. 

26.  "Whiskey  Rebellion.  —  Causes  :  Adams's    Gallatin,  86-93. 
Constitutional  question  of  coercion.     Suppression.     Effects. 

27.  Jay  Treaty.      Legislation.      Election.  —  Conclusion  of  a 
treaty  with  England :   Von  Hoist,  i.  122-28 ;    Schouler,  i.  308-18. 
General  legislation.     Retirement  of  Washington  :  Schouler,  I.  327- 
31 ;   Von  Hoist,  i.  32-37. 

28.  Foreign   Affairs  :    Spain   and  France.  —  Relations  with 
Spain  :  Hildreth,  iv.  134-36,  569  ;  v.  238-39.     X.  Y.  Z.  affair  :  Gil- 
man's  Monroe,  44-68 ;  Schouler,  i.  317-26,  345-51,  374-91. 

29.  Alien    and    Sedition   Acts.  —  Third   naturalization   act : 
Schouler,  i.  393;    Hildreth,   v.   213-14,   216.      Alien   Act:    Story, 
§§  1293-94;    Schouler,  i.  394-99.     Alien  Enemies  Act.     Sedition 
Act:    Schouler,   i.    396-404;   Von   Hoist,   i.    141-43;    Hildreth,   v. 
225-32.     Application  of  the  acts :   Schouler,   i.   420-21,  448-50 ; 
Hildreth,  v.  247-50,  352,  365,  368. 

30.  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions.    History.  —  Origin. 
Kentucky  Resolutions  :   Von  Hoist,  i.  143-45  ;  Hildreth,  v.  272-76 ; 
Jeff.,  xi.  464-69.     Virginia  Resolutions  :  Schouler,  i.  422-24  ;  Hil- 
dreth,  v.   276-77.      Action  of  other  States:  Hildreth,   v.   296-97. 
Second  Kentucky  Resolutions :    Hildreth,   v.   319-20.     Madison's 
Report :    Hildreth,  v.   319-21 ;   Von   Hoist,   i.  147.     Was   forcible 
resistance  intended?  Von  Hoist,  i.  156-58. 

31.  The  Supreme  Arbiter.  —  Necessity  of  some  final  tribunal. 
Distinction  between  judicial  and  political  cases.     Controversies 


AMERICAN   HISTORY. 

between  departments  of  the  general  government.     Controversies 
between  citizens.     Controversies  to  which  States  are  parties. 

32.  Interposition   as   a    Remedy   for   Usurpation.  —  Other 
remedies.    Interposition  as  a  remedy :   Von  Hoist,  I.  150-69 ;  Madi- 
son, iv.  95-106. 

33.  Fall  of  the  Federal  Party.  —  Unpopularity  of  the  admin- 
istration.    Unpopularity  of   Congress:   Hildreth,  v.  414.     Dissei  - 
sions  within  the  party :  Lodge's  Ham.,  188-236 ;  Schouler,  i.  46<>- 
75.     Election   of   1801:    Lodge,    194-201;    Von   Hoist,   i.    168-78. 
Triumph  over  federal  principles :   Von  Hoist,  i.  178-83 ;  Hildreth, 
v.  415-18. 

34.  Policy    of     the    Republican    Party.  —  Administrative : 
Snow,  69-76;    Cook's  Notes,  148-62;    Schouler,  n.  2-15.     Legisla- 
tive:   Snow,   76-79;    Cook's   Notes,   163-68;    Schouler,   n.    15-26. 
Tripolitan  war:  Cook's  Notes,  167-68;  Schouler,  n.  16-18. 

35.  The  Public  Lands.  —  Jurisdiction  before  the  Revolution: 
H.  B.  Adams,  in  Maryland  Historical  Society  Fund  Publication,  No. 
11;  Blunt' a  Historical  Sketch.     Question  of  national  jurisdiction. 
Administration  before  1789.     Alienation  before  1789.     Land  sys- 
tem of  the  United  States. 

36.  The  Louisiana  Annexation.  —  Previous  changes  of  owner- 
ship :  Morse's  Jeff.,  231-39.     Negotiations  :  Morse's  Jeff.,  239-46 ; 
Gilman's  Monroe,  74-85 ;  Schouler,  n.  37-51 ;   Adams's  Randolph, 
75-81.      Treaty   of  cession   completed:    Gilman's   Monroe,  85-93; 
Stevens' 's  Gallatin,  201-2.     Constitutionality  of  the  treaty:  Story, 
§§  1277-83. 

37.  "New  England  Plot  of   1803-4."  —  Early  suggestions  of 
separation.     Causes   of    dissatisfaction.     Evidences  of  a  "  plot " : 
Adams's  New  England  Federalism;  Von  Hoist,  i.  193-95.     Effect 
of  the  "  plot  " :   Von  Hoist,  I.  197-99. 

38.  Republican  Legislation  and  Administration.  —  Impeach- 
ment of  the  judges :  Hildreth,  v.  511-12,  540-44 ;  A  dams's  Randolph, 
131-53.      Election    of   1804:    Schouler,  n.  59,   66;   Morse's  Jeff., 
268-71.     The  Territories.    Finance  and  defence  :  Adams's  Gallatin, 
348-49,  352-55.     Internal  improvements :  Stevens' n  Gallatin,  300 ; 
Adams's  Gallatin,  352-54. 


10  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

39.  Burr's    Conspiracy. — Burr's  plans:    Hildreth,  v.  594-603; 
Randall's  Jeff.,  in.  173-78.     The  expedition  :  Hildreth,  v.  603-24 ; 
Randall's   Jeff.,  in.  179-86.      Habeas   corpus   cases :   Hildreth,  v. 
612-13 ;  Randall's  Jeff.,  in.  194-98.     Prosecution  for  treason  :  Hil- 
dreth, v.  668-73  ;  Story,  §§  1790-97.     Enforcement  Act. 

40.  Neutral  Trade  and  the  Embargo.  —  Foreign  aggression : 
Hildrf.th,   v.   646-49 ;    Schouler,   n.    151-56.      Jefferson's  policy : 
Hildreth,  v.  653-65,  674-86;  Schouler,  n.  133-51.     The  embargo: 
Schouler,  n.  156-65 ;  Hildreth,  vi.  35-44. 

41.  Failure  of  Jefferson's  Policy. — Enforcement:    Schouler, 
n.  185-94;  Hildreth,  vi.  108-24;    Von  Hoist,  i.  209-13.     Repeal: 
Morse's  Jeff.,  310-20;    Schouler,  n.  194-98;  Hildreth,  vi.  124-36; 
Von    Hoist,    i.    214-25.      Result    of    Jefferson's    administration : 
Schouler,  n.  198-204 ;  Hildreth,  vi.  138-43. 

42.  Madison's  First  Term.  —  General  policy  :  Schouler,  n.  279- 
81 ;    Sterens's    Gallatin,   305-11.      Foreign   relations.      Impending 
war  :   Von  Hoist,  i.  225-30. 

43.  Review  of  the  First  Half  Year. 

44.  War  of  1812.  —  Preliminaries :    Von  Hoist,  i.  226-30 ;  Snow, 
100-103 ;   Von  Hoist's  Calhoun,  12-26 ;  Schouler,  n.  345-47.     Decla- 
ration of  war :  Von  Hoist,  i.  230-42 ;  Schouler,  n.  348-56.    Progress : 
Snow,  103-108 ;  Schouler,  n.  356-75  ;  Roosevelt.     The  militia  ques- 
tion :  Dwight,  233-57 ;  Story,  §§  1204-10. 

45.  War  of  1812.  —  Unpopularity  in  New  England :   Von  Hoist, 
i.  243-54.     Hartford  convention :    Von  Hoist,  i.   254-72 ;  Adams's 
New  England  Federalism,  245.     Close   of  the  war:    Schouler,   n. 
402-19,  438-44;  Hildreth,  vi.  545-66.     Martial  law:  North  Ameri- 
can Review,  xcm.  486,  501-504. 

46.  End  of  the  War  of  1812.  — Peace  of  Ghent:  Schouler,  n. 
431-38.     Results  of  the  war :   Von  Hoist,  i.  273-77.      The  bank : 
Snow,  109-10,  124-25 ;  Bolles's  Financial  History,  n.  278-82,  317- 
29  ;  Sumner's  American  Currency,  68-79  ;   Von  Hoist,  i.  382-88. 

47.  Monroe's  Administration.     Internal   Policy.  —  "Era  of 
good   feeling : "   Schouler,   n.   458-63 ;    Oilman's   Monroe,   125-40. 
Tariff  of  1816  :  Snow,  118-24 ;    Von  Hoist,  i.  396-400 ;  Bolles,  n. 
359-74    (Protectionist   view).      Internal   improvements.     Constitu- 
tional question :   Von  Hoist,  i.  388-96. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  11 

48.  Relations  with  Spain.  —  West  Florida  question  :  Hildreth, 
vi.  223-28,  310.     East  Florida  question :  Sumner's  Jackson,  49-72. 
Texas  question :   Von  Hoist,  n.  548-58. 

49.  Slavery     (1789-1820).       Remedies.  —  Emancipation : 
Goodell's  Slavery  and  Anti-Slavery;   Von  Hoist,  I.  273-300.     Colo- 
nization :   Von  Hoist,  i.  329-33.     Abolition. 

50.  Regulation  of  Slavery.  —  Von  Hoist,  i.   302-39.     Slave- 
trade :     Von    Hoist,   i.    315-28.     Growth    of    slavery.      Fugitive 
slaves :   Von  Hoist,  i.  310-15.    Petitions.     Territories. 

51.  The  Missouri  Question.  —  Rivalry  of  North  and  South: 
Von  Hoist,  i.  340-56.     Status  of  Missouri.     Arkansas  Territorial 
Act :  Von  Hoist,  i.  372-74.     First  Missouri  debate. 

52.  Missouri  Compromise.  —  Second  debate,  Hildreth,  vi.  682- 
98.     The  compromise :  Von  Hoist,  i.  370-81 ;  Benton's  View,  I.  5. 
Nature  and  effect  of  the  compromise  :  Adams's  Memoirs,  v.  3-13  ; 
Benton,  i.   8-10.     The   Missouri   Constitution :   Hildreth,  vi.  703, 
706-12. 

53.  Constitutional    Decisions.  —  McCullough    v.   Maryland  : 
Marshall,  160-87 ;   Van  Santvoord's   Chief  Justices,  459-65.     Dart- 
mouth  College   case:  Marshall,   188-220;   Van  Santvoord's  Chief 
Justices,   450-55.      Cohens  v.   Virginia :    Marshall,  221-61 ;    Van 
Santvoord's  Chief  Justices,  466-69.     Effect  of  the  decisions. 

54.  American  Policy  of  European  States.  —  Colonies.   Revolt 
of  the  Spanish  Colonies.     Schemes  of  foreign  intervention. 

55.  Monroe  Doctrine.     Occasion.  —  European  intervention  in 
Spain.      English  proposition  for  joint  declaration.      Plan  of  a 
European  Congress.     Cuban  question.     Republican  spirit.     Rus- 
sian   complications.      Traditional   foreign  policy  of  the   United 
States :  Oilman's  Monroe,  162-66. 

56.  Monroe    Doctrine.      Enunciation.  —  Preliminary  discus- 
sion :  Gilman's  Monroe,  167-74.     The  declaration :  Oilman's  Mon- 
roe,  156-62;    Von  Hoist,   i.   419-21.     Effect  of  the  declaration. 
Exposition  of  the  declaration.     Historical  development. 

57.  Tariff,  and  Election  of  1824.  —  Tariff :   Von  Hoist,  i.  396- 
404.     The  election :  Von  Hoist,  n.  1-9. 

58.  Adams's  Administration.  Opposition. — Opposition  formed: 
Saryenl,  Public  Men  and  Events,  106-14.     Panama  mission:   Von 


12  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

Hoist,  i.  409-33.  Amendment  for  Presidential  elections  :  Benton^ 
I.  37,  78-80.  Attempt  to  control  patronage :  Benton,  i.  80-87. 
Anti-Masonic  party.  Attack  on  the  expenditures.  General  inter- 
nal policy  of  Adams  :  Morse's  Adams,  199-2 13. 

59.  Creek  Controversy. —  Early  difficulties.    Negotiations  -with 
the  Creeks  :   Von  Hoist,  i.  433-35.     Controversy  about  the  survey  : 
Von  Hoist,  i.  435-43  ;  Benton,  i.  58-60.     Second  controversy  :   Von 
Hoist,  i.  444-48. 

60.  Accession    of     Jackson.  —  Tariff    of    1828:     Von    Hoist, 
i.  459-63.      Election    of  Jackson:    Sumner,    114-18.      Jackson's 
policy :   Von  Hoist,   n.    9-12.     Internal   events   of  Jackson's  first 
administration  :  Sumner,  139-63  ;    Von  Hoist,  n.  27-31. 

61.  Removals.     Internal  Improvements.     Public  Lands. — 
Removals  :  Von  Hoist,  n.  13-27.    Internal  improvements  :  Sumner's 
Jackson,  191-94;   Von  Hoist,  i.  389-96.      Public  lands:  Sumner's 
Jackson,  109,  184-91. 

62.  Cherokee  Controversy.  —  Origin  of  the  difficulty  :  Sumner, 
49,  179.     Conflict  with    Georgia :  Von  Hoist,  i.  448-49.     Georgian 
encroachments  permitted  :    Sumner,  180-81 ;    Von  Hoist,  i.  449-51. 
Conflict  with  the  supreme  court :  Von  Hoist,  i.  452-58. 

63.  The  Bank  Controversy.  —  History  of  the  bank  :  Sumner's 
Jackson,   224-30.     Hostility    of  Jackson :    Von   Hoist,   n.    31-36 ; 
Sumner's  Jackson,  236-14  ;  Benton,  i.  229-29.     Struggle  for  a  char- 
ter :     Von   Hoist,   n.    36-43;     Sumner's    Jackson,   244-49,   258-74. 
Jackson's  veto  :   Von  Hoist,  n.  43-55  ;  Sumner's  Jackson,  274-75. 

64.  Distribution.  —  Dickerson's   distribution  bills.     Proceeds  of 
public  lands  scheme.     Clay's  distribution  bill :  Benton,  i.  275-78. 
Clay's  bill  revived  :  Benton,  i.  362.     Pocket  veto  :  Benton,  i.  365-69. 
Calhoun's  scheme  :   Von  Hoist,  n.  187-88.     Constitutional  question. 

65.  The  Nullification  Movement. —  Precedents  :  Sumner's  Jack- 
son, 212-16.    Agitation  by  Calhoun  :  Von  Hoist,  1.459-75;  Sumner's 
Jackson,  216-22.    Tariff  of  1832  :  Von  Hoist,  i.  471 ;  Sumner's  ^k- 
son,  222.     Action  of  South  Carolina :  Von  Hoist,  i.  475-77.     Action 
of  the  Executive  of  the  United  States. 

66.  Nullification   Crisis    and   Discussion  (1832-33). —  Iss^e 
joined.     Is  nullification  constitutional?     Von  Hoist,  i.  465-75. 

67.  Nullification.     Force  Bill  and  Compromise.  —  Principle 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  13 

r,f  Coercion.  The  Force  Bill :  Von  Hoist,  I.  484-90  ;  Sumner,  285-87. 
The  compromise  :  Von  Hoist,  i.  490-92,  497-501.  The  settlement : 
Von  Hoist,  i.  501-503  ;  Sumner,  288-90. 

68.  The   Deposits.  —  Attack  on   the   bank   renewed :    Benton, 
i.   86-89,   294-96;  Sumner's  Jackson,   291-94.     "Removal  of    the 
deposits  "  :   Von  Hoist,  n.  51-55 ;  Sumner's  Jackson,  294-309.     Con- 
stitutionality of  the  removal :  Story,  Life  and  Letters,  II.  155-58; 
Von  Hoist,  n.  55-68. 

69.  Censure  and  Protest.  —  Censure  of  the  President :  Sumner's 
Jackson,  309-11.    Jackson's  protest :  Sumner,  311 ;  Von  Hoist,  n.  70- 
76.     Expunging  resolutions  :  Sumner,  313-14 ;  Von  Hoist,  u.  68-70. 
Bank  controversy  continued:  Sumner,  309,  310,  312,  314-21. 

70.  Anti-Slavery   Agitation.  —  Agitation  in  the  North :    yon 
Hoist,  ii.  80-87.     Opposition  in  the  North:   Von  Hoist,  n.  97-110. 
Opposition  in  the  South :   Von  Hoist,  n.  110-121.     The  mails  :  Von 
Hoist,  n.  121-36.     Petitions. 

71.  Finances   and   Deposit.  —  Banks   and  currency.     Deposit 
act.     French  indemnity. 

72.  Texas.  —  Boundaries:    Von   Hoist,  n.  548-51.     Importance 
to  slavery :   Von  Hoist,  11.  551-58,  569.     Independence  :   Von  Hoist, 
n.  558-85.     Recognition  by  the  United  States :  Von  Hoist,  n.  585-88. 

73.  End  of  the  "Reign  of  Jackson."  —  Judiciary  in  Jackson's 
administration.     Election  of  1836.     Jackson's  influence :  Sumner's 
Jackson,  277-80,  385-86. 

74.  Van    Buren's    Administration.  —  Character    and   policy : 
Von  Hoist,  ii.  147-72.     Panic  of  1837.     Public  Funds.     Caroline 
affair :  Lodge's  Webster,  247-49,  252,  255. 

75.  The  Whigs  and  Tyler.— Election  of  1840 :  Von  Hoist,  ii.  360- 
405.    Harrison's  policy :  Von  Hoist,  n.  406-12.    Tyler  and  the  bank : 
Von  Hoist,  n.  412-26.     Breach  with  Tyler  :   Von  Hoist,  n.  426-39. 
Finances :  Von  Hoist,  n.  440-51.  Tariff  of  1842 :  Von  Hoist,  ii.  451-64. 

76.  North-Eastern  Boundary.  —  The  dispute.     Negotiations. 
Northern  boundary.  Treaty  of  Washington  :  Lodge's  Webster,  253-60. 

77.  Slavery :    International  and  Interstate  Status.  —  Legal 
aspect  of  slavery.     Restriction  of   the   slave-trade.     International 
status   of  slaves   in   the   United   States.     International   status  of 
slaves  on  the  high  seas.     Interstate  status  of  slavery. 


14  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

78.  Folk's  Election  and  Administration.  —  Election  of  1844. 
Folk's  internal  administration.     Tariff  of  1846 :  Von  Hoist,   m. 
276-81. 

79.  Northwestern  Boundary. —  Conflicting  claims :  Von  Hoist, 
m.  29-36,  39-40.   Joint  occupation  with  Great  Britain :  Von  Hoist, 
HI.  36-44 ;  Barrows,  67-76.    American  settlements  established  :  Von 
Hoist,  in.  44-53.   "  Fifty-four  forty  or  fight."  Treaty  of  Washington. 

80.  Annexation  of  Texas.  —  Jackson's  policy.     Recognition 
only:  Lecture  72.    Van  Buren's  policy:    Von  Hoist,  11.   599-612. 
Tyler's  policy :  Von  Hoist,  n.  612-14,  625-43.     Annexation  in  the 
campaign  of  1844  :  Von  Hoist,  n.  677-90,  702-709.     Annexation  by 
joint  resolution :   Von  Hoist,  n.  709-14 ;  Greeley,  i.  171-73. 

81.  Causes  of  the  Mexican  War.  —  Breach  of  neutrality  by 
the  United  States  :  Von  Hoist,  11.  571-85.     Recognition  of  Texas : 
Lecture  72.     Question  of  claims :   Von  Hoist,  n.  592-601,  604-606, 
627, 634-36, 681.    Jones's  attack  on  Monterey :  Von  Hoist,  n.  615-20. 
Annexation  of  Texas :  Von  Hoist,  n.  680,  in.  80-82.     Occupation 
of  Texas :  Von  Hoist,  in.  93-99.     Claim  up  to  the  Rio  Grande : 
Von  Hoist,  in.  84-93  ;  Gal.  in.  574-79.     Greed  for  California :  Von 
Hoist,  in.  108-13. 

82.  Mexican  War. —  Preliminaries.   Military  operations.   Peace 
of  Guadeloupe  Hidalgo  :  Von  Hoist,  in. 

83.  Territorial   Slavery.  —  Comparison  of  North   and   South. 
Constitutional  question  of  territorial  slavery.     Application  to  new 
territory. 

84.  The  Crisis  of  1848-49.  —  Election  of  1848.     Status  of  the 
slavery  question. 

85.  Compromise  of  1850.  —  Compromise  proposed.     Attitude 
of  public  men  :  Greeley,  203-207.     Compromise  carried :  Von  Hoist, 
in.  545-61.     Who  won  the  victory?    Von  Hoist,  in.  561-62. 

86.  Review  of  the  Second  Half  Tear. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  are  but  few  distinctively  bio- 
graphical sketches  in  the  course  just  outlined.  The  deficiency 
is  supplied  in  part  by  constant  reference  to  the  character  and 
motives  of  the  actors  in  the  historical  drama  ;  it  is  further 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  16 

supplied  by  references  to  brief  biographies,  particularly  the 
excellent  American  Statesmen  Series.  Nevertheless,  the 
course  might  be  improved  by  systematically  taking  up  one 
man  after  another,  in  connection  with  some  event  in  which 
he  was  particularly  concerned.  Such  a  plan  has  been  elab- 
orated in  the  following 

TOPICS  FOR  A  COURSE  OF  TWENTY  LECTURES.1 

1.  The  United  States  in  1789. 

2.  Organization  and  consolidation  of  the  government. — Hamilton. 

3.  Foreign  relations  and  neutrality.  —  Washington. 

4.  Fall  of  the  Federal  party.  —  John  Adams. 

5.  Public  lands  and  the  annexation  of  Louisiana.  —  Gallatin . 

6.  Neutral  trade  and  the  embargo.  —  Jefferson. 

7.  War  of  1812  and  its  results.  —  Madison. 

8.  Slavery  and  the  Missouri  Compromise.  —  Monroe. 

9.  Florida  purchase  and  the  Monroe  doctrine. — John  Quincy 
Adams. 

10.  Jackson's  election  and  the  spoils  system.  —  Van  Buren. 

11.  The  United  States  Bank  and  the  Sub-treasury.  —  Jackson. 

12.  Conflicts  with  States,  and  nullification. — Calhoun. 

13.  The  tariff,  surplus  revenue,  and  internal  improvements.  — 
Clay. 

14.  The  anti-slavery  movement.  —  Giddings. 

15.  Annexation  of  Texas,  and  the  Mexican  War.  —  Polk. 

16.  Completion  of  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States.  —  Benton. 

17.  Compromise  of  1850.  —  Webster. 

18.  Kansas-Nebraska  struggle. — Douglas. 

19.  The  slavery  issue,  and  election  of  1860.  —  Seward. 

20.  Causes  of  the  Civil  War.  —  Jefferson  Davis. 

In  connection  with  the  lectures  several  aids  for  the  student 
have  been  put  in  operation.     The  chief  ones  are :  a  printed 

1  This  course  has  been  arranged  for  the  Swain  Free  School  of  New 
Bedford,  Mass. 


16  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

' '  outline  "  ;    helps  on  note-taking  ;    maps  ;    diagrams  ;    and 
helps  on  thesis  writing. 

The  "  outline,"  of  which  a  sample  follows,  is  prepared  by 
the  instructor,  and  printed,  at  the  expense  of  those  of  the 
class  who  choose  to  subscribe  for  it,  under  the  direction  of  a 
committee  of  their  own  number.  The  cost  has  been  about 
a  dollar  and  a  half  a  page.  It  is  printed  in  paragraphs,  so 
as  readily  to  catch  the  eye  ;  it  is  printed  on  one  side,  so  that 
the  successive  lectures  may  be  detached  and  put  among  the 
students'  notes,  each  in  its  proper  place ;  it  is  printed  in 
advance,  so  that  the  student  may  have  it  before  him  while 
he  listens.  The  following  is  the  outline  for  the  first  four 
lectures  of  the  course  for  1884-85  :  — 

NOTE.  —  Opposite  each  heavy-face  heading  are  noted  several  brief 
references,  any  one  of  which  is  sufficient  for  a  general  outline  of  the 
topic  taken  up  in  that  section ;  the  more  detailed  references,  in  the 
body  of  the  text,  are  intended  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  desire 
to  go  deeper  into  the  history  of  the  period. 

T.  PROVINCIAL,  GOVERNMENT  AND  COLONIAL  UNION  (1612-1765). 

Introduction.     The  Federal  building  as  we  find  it. 

1.  The  site  —  territory. 

2.  The  builders  — "the  people." 

3.  Materials  —  institutions. 

4.  The  plan  —  the  Constitution. 

5.  The  agent  —  a  personified  head. 

6.  The  purpose  —  government. 

I.  The  Land  :  Frothingham,  Rise  of  the  Republic,  1-5. 

1.  In  1620 :  the  wilderness  and  its  inhabitants.     Map. 

2.  In  1765 :  the  British  Colonies.     Map. 

3.  Who  owned  the  land?     Story's  Commentaries,  §§  1-38. 

II.  The   People :    Lodge,   English    Colonies   in   America,   ch.   n., 

ch.  xvin. ;  McMaster,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United 
States,  i.,  ch.  i. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  17 

1.  The  race  :  sturdiness  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

2.  Immigration  :  causes  and  distribution.     Map. 

3.  Population  :  increase  and  settlement.     Diagram. 

III.  Free  Institutions :  Frothingham,  11-32 ;  Bancroft,  n.,  ch.  xvn. 

1.  Rights  of  Englishmen :  Story,  §§  146-58. 

2.  English  representative  institutions. 

3.  Principle  of  self-government :  Porter,  Outlines  of  the  Constitu- 

tional History  of  the  United  States,  1-36. 

4.  Special  Colonial  Institutions :  Story's  Commentaries,  §§  159- 

67. 

a.  "Provincial  governments." 
6.  "  Proprietary  governments." 
c.  "  Charter  governments." 

5.  Control  by  the  home  government :  Lecky,  History  of  the  Eigh- 

teenth Century,  n.  2,  in.  272,299  ;  Bancroft,  in.  1-12, 100-108; 
Story,  §§  183-97. 

IV.  Attempts  to  form  Colonial  Unions :  Porter,  36-37. 
1643.     "  The  United  Colonies  of  New  England  "  :  Lodge,  351-58. 
1696-1752.    Various  English  and  American  plans  :  Frothingham, 

111-16. 
1754.  Congress  of  Albany  —  Franklin's  scheme :  Frothingham, 

132-40. 
1765.  Informal  union  in  the  Stamp-Act  Congress  :  Frothingham, 

177-89. 
Why  union  was  difficult. 

II.   REVOLUTIONARY  UNION  ANT»  INDEPENDENCE.     (1765-1776.) 

I.   Union  Accomplished:  Von  Hoist,  History  of  the  United  States, 

i.  1-20. 

A.    The  Way  Prepared :  Frothingham,  266-86,  320-39  ;  Lodge, 
476-91. 

1.  Why  union  was  possible. 

2.  Effect  of  the  Stamp-Act  Congress. 

3.  1772—73.     Committees  of  Correspondence. 

4.  1774.     First  Continental  Congress,  union  still  voluntary? 

Journals  of  Congress,  I.  3-67. 


18  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

B.   1775-81.     A  General  Government  in  the  Second  Conti- 
nental Congress :    Lodge,  498-500,  510-21 ;  Frothingham, 
466-90. 
"The  form  of  the  structure." 

1.  What  was  Congress?     Story,  §  201 ;  Frothingham,  420. 

2.  What  was  Congress  authorized  to  do  ?   Journal  of  Congress, 

i.  73-78. 

3.  What  did  Congress  do  ?  Story,  §§  202-205, 214-17 ;  Diagram. 
Conduct  of  the  war  —  Foreign  affairs :    Hildreth's   United 

States,  in.  76-98. 
General  governing  powers.     Direction  of  the  States. 

4.  What  Congress  could  not  do. 

II.   Independence  Accomplished :  Von  Hoist,  i.  20-35 ;  Hildreth, 
in.  124-39. 

A.  The  "Way  Prepared :  Frothingham,  496-539  ;  Bancroft,  vm. 

384-93,  434-62. 

Early  predictions  and  suggestions. 
Loyalty  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution. 

1775.  May  31.     Mecklenburg  resolutions. 

Nov.  3.     N.  II.  advised  to  form  a  government. 

1776.  March-June.     Instructions  of  the  States. 
May  15.     Congress  votes  for  independence. 

B.  The  Declaration  of  Independence :    Frothingham,  539-60; 

Morse's  Life  of  Jefferson,  26-40. 

1.  Who  made  it?    Jefferson,  i.  9-26. 

2.  By  what  authority?     Story,  §§  205-13. 

3.  Its  influence. 

4.  Its  nature  and  bearing  :  Bancroft,  vm.  462-75. 

5.  Who  was  made  "  independent  "  :  Story,  §  213. 

III.   STATE  GOVERNMENTS  AND  IMPERFECT  UNION. 

(1776-1786.) 
I.    The  States. 

A.  What  is  a  State  ?     Story,  §§  207-209. 

B.  Birth  of  the  States:  Hildreth,  in.  374-95;  Curtis,  History 

of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  i.  37,  116-20. 
Colonies  left  without  government. 


AMERICAN    HISTORY.  19 

1775-70.     Advice  of  Congress  :  Frothingham,  443-44,  447-51. 
Adoption  of  State  constitutions :  Frothingham,  491-90,  500, 

563-68. 
C.   Is  the  Union  Older  than  the  States  ?     Von  Hoist,  i.  7-11 : 

Story,  §§  210-13 ;  Curtis,  i.  37-40,  122. 
State  rights  view.     Calhoun's  Works,  i.  190. 
Temporary  purpose  view  :  Jefferson  in  Von  Hoist,  i.  7  n. 
National  view  :  Lincoln's  Message,  July  4,  1861. 

II.  The  Confederation :   Von  Hoist,  i.  20-46  ;  Story,  §§  218-42. 

A.  Articles  of  Confederation.     "  The  plan  of  the  structure  " ; 

Hlldreth,  m.  395-410. 

1775-77.     Suggestions  and  drafts  :  Curtis,  i.  104,  121-30. 
1777.     Nov.  15.     Congress  adopts  the  Articles :  Frothinyham, 

569-79. 
The  Territorial  disputes  :  H.  B.  Adams  in  Maryland  Historical 

Society  Publications  ;  Curtis,  I.  131-40  ;  Map. 
1731.     March  1.     The  Confederation  in  effect.     Map. 
Powers  granted  —  Powers  withheld  :  Curtis,  i.  140-49. 

B.  Defects  of  the  Confederation :  Story,  §  265. 

1.  In  form. 

2.  In  powers  granted. 

3.  In  means  of  carrying  out  its  powers. 

4.  Weakness  and  timidity. 

C.  Violations  of  the  Articles   of  Confederation :  Elliot  De- 

bates, v.  207-208. 

1.  The  States  do  not  perform  their  duties.     Diagrams. 

2.  Congress  oversteps  its  powers  :   The  Federalist,  No.  39. 

3.  The  States  quarrel  with  each  other  :  McMaster,  i.  210. 

III.  Union  of  States  in  a  Confederation  a  Failure:  McMaster, 

i.,  ch.  in. ;  Schouler,  History  of  the   United  States,  i.  19-34  ; 

Story,  §§  243-71. 
Debts   unpaid ;    Newburg   Addresses :   Bancroft,    History  of  the 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,  i.  76-101 ;    Curtis,  i.  155-74. 
Commerce  improtected :    Curtis,  i.  276-90. 
Treaty  unfulfilled  :   Curtis,  i.  249-59. 
State  governments  oppressive  :  Bancroft,  Constitution,  i.  228-41. 


20  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

The  people  rebellious  :  McMaster,  i.  294—354. 
Western  territory  ungoverned  :  Curtis,  i.  291-308. 
Threatened  withdrawal  of  the  West :  Curtis,  i.  309-27. 
The  plan  must  be  altered  or  the  building  abandoned. 

IV.   A  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  UNION.    (1781-1789.) 

I.  Attempt  to  Improve  the  Articles  of  Confederation :  Curtis, 

i.  328-79. 

A.  By  granting  Particular  Powers. 

1781.     Five  per  cent  scheme  :  Bancroft,  Constitution,  i.  34-45. 

1783.  Revenue  scheme :   Curtis,  i.  233-48. 

1784.  Commercial   scheme :     Curtis,   i.    276-90 ;    Bancroft, 

Constitution,  i.  184-209. 
1787.     North-west  Ordinance. 

B.  By  granting  Powers  of  Enforcement. 

C.  By  altering  the  Form  of  the  Government. 

1.  To  a  monarchy.    (Morris.) 

2.  To  a  centralized  government. 

3.  To  a  closer   federal   government :    Bancroft,    Constitution, 

i.  146-67. 

II.  The  Philadelphia  Convention :  Von  Hoist,  i.  47-53 ;  Froth- 

ingham,  589-97 ;  Hildreth,  in.  482-526  ;  Bancroft,  Constitution, 
n.  3-222  ;  Curtis,  Constitution,  n.  3-487  ;  McMaster,  i.  438-53. 

Early  suggestions  of  a  Convention:  Bancroft,  Constitution, 
i.  11-76. 

Annapolis  Convention  and  formal  call :    Curtis,  i.  340-79. 

1.  Powers  of  the  Convention  :   Curtis,  n.  3-17. 

2.  Its  task. 

3.  Its  difficulties. 

4.  Its  compromises. 

5.  Its  product,  —  the  "New  Roof":   Von  Hoist,  i.  64-79; 

Frothingham,  597-610. 

a.  A  "  government  "  established  :  in  practical  form. 
6.  A  government  with  power  over  individuals. 

c.  A  government  with  power  to  protect  itself. 

d.  A  government  which  could  govern;  purpose   of  the 

structure. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  21 

IV.  Acceptance  of  the  Constitution :  Von  Hoist,  i.  53-63  ; 
McMaster,  i.  454-501 ;  Curtis,  n.  491-604 ;  Bancroft,  Constit 
tution,  n.  225-350. 

1.  Process.     (1787-88.) 

2.  Who  ratified  it?    Elliot,  i.  319-35. 

3.  Who  were   the  people   of   the   United    States  ?      Federalisl, 

No.  39;   Calhoun's  Works,  vi.  151-52;  Elliot,  iv.  499-510 ; 
Story,  §§  362,  463. 

4.  1789.     April  6.     The  new  government  in  effect.     Map. 

As  will  at  once  be  seen,  the  outline  is  meant  to  guide,  and 
not  to  be  memorized.  Indeed,  it  is  purposely  cast  into 
a  negative  form,  which  shall  not  convey  too  much  direct 
information.  The  advantages  of  the  system  are  many.  It 
is  an  aid  to  intelligent  note-taking :  the  references  are  veri- 
fied by  the  committee,  and  annoying  errors  in  getting  down 
the  references  given  by  the  lecturer  are  avoided ;  and  since 
most  of  the  citations  are  thus  before  him,  the  student  may 
follow  the  lecture  more  closely.  A  convenient  means  of 
reference  and  cross-reference  to  the  notes  themselves  is  pro- 
vided. The  lecturer  is  saved  the  necessity  of  putting  tables 
and  chronologies  on  the  board,  and  the  arrangement  and 
sequence  of  his  thought  is  made  perfectly  clear.  To  the 
student  it  is  a  skeleton  read)'  to  be  clothed  from  his  own 
reading,  or  always  at  hand  hereafter  for  a  more  elaborate 
study  of  any  topic  that  may  become  interesting  to  him.  A 
further  advantage  is,  that  it  is  possible,  together  with  the  out- 
line, to  have  printed  other  helps  or  suggestions,  such  as  do  not 
strictly  fall  within  the  scope  of  the  lectures.  Such  are  the 

PRINCIPLES  OF  CONSTITUTIONAL  DISCUSSION. 
I.    Distinguish  clearly  into  which  of  the  following  departments 
cf  Controversy  the  question  falls. 

1.  Origin  of  the  Constitution:  including  the  question  of  its 
form. 


22  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

2.  Scope .  of  the  Constitution  :  usually,  but  not  always,  a  dis- 

cussion of  the  extent  of  legislative  powers. 

3.  Interpreter  of  the  Constitution :  always  involving  the  judi- 

ciary powers  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  Courts. 

4.  Execution  of  the  Constitution:  particularly  relating  to  the 

executive  powers,  but  including  others. 

II.  Obsei've  the  two  aspects  selected  by  the  two  great  schools 
of  Constitutional  exposition,  —  the  loose  construction ists  and  strict 
constructionists. 

1.  Origin,     a.  Did  "  the  people  "  form  the  Constitution  ? 

b.  Is  it  a  "  Compact "  ? 
Discussed  particularly  in  1791  and  18.30. 

2.  Scope,     a.  Are  there  "  Constructive  powers  "  ? 

b.  Are  powers  limited  to  "  express  grants  "  ? 
Discussed  particularly  in  1791,  1799,  180:5,  1819,  1833,  1842. 

3.  Interpreter,    a.  Is  the  Supreme  Court  the  "  Common  arbiter  "  ? 

b.  Can  States  "interpose"  to  make  acts  void? 
Discussed  particularly  in  1799,  1815. 

4.  Execution,     a.  Can  the  United  States  "  coerce  "  the  execution 

of  its  acts? 
b.  Can  States  by  "  secession  "  make  themselves 

independent  ? 
Question  raised  in  1 861.    It  involves  the  question  of  allegiance. 

III.  Draw  arguments  from  four  sources. 

1.  Nature  of  government  in  general. 

2.  "Words  of  the  Constitution. 

3.  Opinions. 

a.  Testimony  of  "  the  fathers." 

b.  Views  of  statesmen  and  jurists. 

c.  Decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

4.  Usage,  as  shown  in  the  history  of  the  United  States. 

IV.  Keep  in  mind  and  avoid  certain  difficulties. 

1.  Confusion  of  arguments  among  the  different  departments  of 

controversy. 

2.  Possibility  of  bringing  strong  proofs  of  contrary  aspects. 

3.  Change  of  party  views  and  party  arguments. 


AMERICAN    HISTORY.  23 

The  main  purpose  of  the  "  outline  "  is,  however,  to  direct, 
or  rather  to  suggest,  the  reading  of  the  students.  The  range 
of  references  in  any  of  the  larger  courses  in  history  is  re- 
stricted by  three  difficulties :  one  mechanical,  one  temporal, 
and  one  general.  In  the  first  place,  no  library  has  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  copies  of  original  sources  to  furnish  fifty 
or  a  hundred  men  with  working  materials  ;  recourse  must 
therefore  be  had  to  easily  accessible  books,  which  the  stu- 
dent ma}'  own  or  borrow.  In  the  second  place,  allowing  a 
fair  proportion  of  study  hours  to  the  subject  of  American 
history,  there  is  time  for  reading,  but  not  for  research,  col- 
lation, and  selection  of  authorities.  The  difficulty  is  made 
greater  by  the  overwhelming  mass  of  undigested  details : 
the  instructor  owes  it  to  his  students  to  select  the  really  sig- 
nificant events  for  them,  and  to  send  them  direct  to  a  pas- 
sage where  these  events  may  be  found  described.  If  time 
is  to  be  found  for  original  investigation,  the  field  must  be 
restricted.  Here  comes  in  the  third  difficulty.  To  refer 
:i  student  in  a  general  way  to  a  library  or  an  alcove,  or  a 
work,  or  even  a  volume,  for  information,  is,  in  average 
cases,  to  make  sure  that  he  will  get  none  :  the  moral  repug- 
nance to  deciding  what  to  do  first  and  where  to  begin,  is 
great  enough,  without  adding  the  discouragement  of  having 
to  select  one's  materials.  It  is,  of  course,  a  good  thing  for 
a  man  to  read  books  which  are  not  very  useful,  and  to  handle 
and  recognize  many  that  he  cannot  read.  But,  as  a  practical 
matter  of  fact,  ordinary  students  cannot  be  got  to  investigate 
in  a  course  covering  so  much  ground ;  and,  indeed,  where 
there  is  so  much  trash,  it  is  unfair  to  turn  them  into  an  intel- 
lectual cornfield,  to  help  themselves.  The  references  there- 
fore should  be  specific  and  limited  :  there  should  be  no  excuse 
for  not  taking  hold  somewhere.  The  first  class  of  references 
i:i  the  outline  is  made  up  of  those  opposite  tlic  sub-heads  of 


24  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

the  lectures ;  many  are  given  in  the  list  of  topics  quoted 
above.  They  are  to  common  books  ;  they  are  precise  ;  they 
are  limited  ;  the  student  is  held  responsible  for  one,  at  least, 
on  every  sub-topic.  The  second  class  of  references,  in  the 
body  of  the  outline,  is  intended  for  the  more  ambitious  stu- 
dents, or  for  special  work ;  the  references  are  chiefly  to  the 
sources. 

In  arranging  the  references,  care  is  taken  to  introduce  the 
reader  to  a  variety  of  authors,  and  to  refer  often  to  books 
which  take  a  different  view  from  that  presented  in  the  lec- 
tures. The  whole  plan  rather  takes  for  granted  some  system 
of  "reserved  books,"  by  which  the  books  most  often  cited 
are  kept  altogether  for  use  in  the  library,  or  may  be  drawn 
out  only  over  night.  The  one  book  on  which  most  reliance  is 
placed  is  Von  Hoist's.  No  writer  has  so  thoroughly  studied 
and  digested  the  enormous  mass  of  material ;  no  writer 
searches  more  carefully  for  the  hidden  springs  of  action  ; 
none  is  so  suggestive.  He  assumes,  however,  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  country,  which  must  be 
supplied  by  other  reading  or  from  the  lectures. 

Neither  the  outline  nor  the  study  of  the  references  is  con- 
sidered sufficient.  Students  are  expected  to  take  careful 
notes,  and  to  complete  them  out  of  their  own  reading.  As 
an  assistance  to  the  somewhat  difficult  labor,  a  system  is 
recommended :  it  is  designed  to  spare  as  much  time  from  the 
manual  labor  of  writing  as  may  be,  and  thus  to  leave  as 
much  as  possible  for  study. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TAKING  NOTES. 

1.  Have  a  regular  system. 

2.  If  you  have  worked  out  a  system  of  your  own  which  satisfies 
you,  do  not  change  it. 

3.  Shorthand  is  not  a  great  convenience,  unless  the  notes  are 
afterwards  put  into  a  form  which  may  be  read  by  any  one. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  25 

4.  A  system  of  recognizable  abbreviations  is  desirable. 

5.  Take  notes  all  the  time  during  the  lecture. 

6.  A  word-for-word  reproduction  of  what  you  hear  is  much  less 
valuable  to  you  than  your  own  condensed  form,  embodying  the 
lecturer's  ideas. 

7.  Distinguish  in  your  own  mind  the  heads  of  the  lecture  as  it 
proceeds,  and  paragraph  your  notes  accordingly. 

8.  Aim  to  set  down  the  substance  of  general  statements,  in 
your  own  words,  rather  than  to  note  a  part  of  each  sentence. 

9.  Practise  getting  the  exact  •words  of  significant  phrases  or 
quotations. 

10.  If  you  miss  something  important,  ask  to  have  it  repeated. 

11.  If  you  lose  a  lecture,  fill  up  the  blank  immediately,  from 
the  note-book  of  a  fellow-student. 

12.  After  each  lecture,  go  over  your  notes,  and  clearly  indicate 
the  heads :   (a)  by  catch-words  in  the  margin ;  or  (6)  by  under- 
lining words. 

13.  Once  a  week  review  the  notes  taken   since  the  previous 
review. 

14.  Make  out  a  brief  table  of  contents,  as  you  go  along,  refer- 
ring to  pages  of  your  note-books. 

[For  courses,  in  any  subject,  made  up  chiefly  of  lectures 
with  parallel  readings,  the  following  specific  system,  is  recom- 
mended.'] 

1.  Use  a  note-book  ruled  in  three  vertical  columns  :  a  narrower 
one  next  the  outer  edge ;  the  remaining  space  on  each  page  equally 
divided.     Let  there  be  a  broad  horizontal  line  an  inch  or  more 
from  the  top. 

2.  Enter  your  notes  in  the  middle  column;  dates  and  headings 
(if  desired)  in  the  outer  column. 

3.  Do  not  rewrite  the  notes  taken  in  class. 

4.  Enter  abstracts  or  quotations  from  your  later  readings  in  the 
inner  column,  each  opposite  the  passage  in  the  notes  which  it  is 
meant  to  illustrate, 


26  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

5.  Across  the  top  of  the  page  write  a  running  heading  in  two, 
three,  or  four  members,  summarizing  the  matter  on  the  page ;  e.g., 
"  HISTORY,  —  METHODS,  —  NOTE-TAKING." 

G.  Begin  to  write  on  the  right  side  of  the  opened  book,  and 
begin  each  distinct  general  head  on  a  new  leaf. 

7.  Each  leaf  being  thus  complete  in  itself  may  at  any  time  be 
detached  and  used  in  another  connection  ;  or  others  may  be  inter- 
leaved, without  disturbing  the  logical  connection. 

8.  Copy  or  reproduce  tables,  diagrams,  or  maps  before  the 
succeeding  lecture. 

One  of  the  most  important  aids  to  the  study  of  American 
history  is  the  use  of  maps.  A  large  outline  map  should  be 
painted  on  a  movable  blackboard  ;  it  is  sufficient  to  indicate 
the  coasts,  and  a  few  great  water-courses,  and  the  State 
boundary  lines.  By  using  colored  crayons,  it  is  easy,  in  a 
few  minutes,  to  present  any  desired  general  maps,  on  a  scale 
large  enough  to  be  seen  at  a  distance  of  forty  feet.  Where 
a  larger  scale  is  desired,  or  the  field  is  out  of  the  limits  of 
the  United  States,  sketches  may  be  made  on  the  blackboard, 
or  permanent  maps  on  thick  paper.  It  is  much  simpler  than 
it  seems  to  draw  rough  maps  on  a  large  scale :  even  those 
who  are  not  draughtsmen  will  find  no  difficulty.  A  roll  of 
strong  mauila  paper,  a  few  colored  crayons,  or,  better  still, 
water  colors,  a  yard-stick,  and  a  small  map  on  which  rect- 
angles ma}'  be  lightly  ruled,  are  all  the  materials  nccessar}'. 
For  the  student's  use,  the  signal-service  weather-map,  which 
costs  eighteen  cents  a  dozen,  is  exactly  what  is  needed :  with 
a  few  colored  pencils  he  can  reproduce  the  large  map  ;  and, 
at  the  end  of  the  3~ear,  he  will  have  a  historical  atlas  of  his 
own. 

The  first  use  of  the  maps  is  to  illustrate  the  territorial 
development  of  the  country,  by  bringing  before  the  eye  the 
successive  cessions  and  purchases.  At  the  same  time,  the 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  27 

perplexing  boundary  controversies  ma}-  be  made  clear.  The 
close  connection  between  annexations  and  the  inner  political 
history  of  the  country  is  often  brought  out  in  startling  relief, 
when  presented  to  the  eye.  Next  comes  the  internal  devel- 
opment of  the  country.  Successive  maps,  dated  say  ten 
years  apart,  may  show  the  extent  of  settlement,  and  the 
formation  of  Territories  and  States.  Even  political  affairs 
may  sometimes  be  strikingly  mapped  out :  thus,  a  series  of 
maps  showing  the  distribution  of  the  Presidential  vote  in 
each  succeeding  election  will  forever  fix  in  the  mind  the 
slow  growth  of  sectional  parties.  Special  maps  may  be  used 
for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  theatre  of  wars  and  cam- 
paigns, detailed  boundary  controversies,  proposed  sites  for 
the  national  capital,  schemes  of  internal  improvements,  — 
these  and  many  like  subjects  may  be  made  to  appeal  to  the 
eye. 

Another  form  of  illustration,  equally  useful,  and  much  less 
generally  known,  is  the  use  of  graphic  charts.  A  set  of 
coordinate  lines,  ruled  on  a  blackboard,  or  perhaps  on  the 
back  of  the  movable  map,  and  a  dozen  colored  crayons,  are 
all  that  is  necessary.  The  student  can  use  cross-section 
paper  and  a  few  colored  pencils.  All  the  various  forms  of 
graphic  charts  can  be  put  in  use  :  curves,  blocks,  squares, 
triangles,  circles,  or  shaded  maps.  The  easiest  subject  to 
illustrate  is  the  growth  of  population  :  a  curve  may  be  drawn 
in  five  minutes  which  will  leave  on  the  mind  a  clearer  notion 
of  the  progress  of  the  United  States  than  could  half  a  dozen 
pages  of  print.  Two  similar  curves  will  show  ineffaceably 
the  comparative  growth  of  the  sections  ;  another  diagram 
may  show  a  comparison  between  the  population  of  this  and 
of  other  countries  :  and  the  student  will  never  forget  how 
the  United  States  has  outstripped  most  European  powers  if 
he  has  once  seen  its  rocket's  path  plotted  out.  In  like  man- 


28  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

ner,  the  apportionment  of  representatives  to  the  States  and 
sections  may  be  represented,  or  the  status  of  political  parties 
in  Congress.  A  most  suggestive  diagram  may  be  made  of 
the  changes  in  the  rank  of  States,  reckoning  by  population. 
Then  come  revenue,  expenditure,  and  debt:  they  may  be 
compared  with  each  other,  or  with  similar  statistics  in  other 
countries.  By  the  same  system  may  be  shown  the  territorial 
extension  of  the  United  States,  and  the  division  of  the  acqui- 
sitions between  the  sections.  The  depreciation  of  paper  cur- 
rency, the  number  of  banks,  and  other  economic  phenomena 
may  be  clearly  shown.  The  sales  of  the  available  public 
lands,  appropriations  for  internal  improvements,  are  exam- 
ples of  similar  possibilities.  In  the  census  atlas  of  1874, 
and  the  census  reports  of  1870  and  1880,  may  be  found  a 
variety  of  such  charts.  It  is  even  possible  to  represent  cer- 
tain great  political  doctrines  by  diagram  :  thus  the  different 
theories  as  to  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  may  be 
defined  from  each  other  by  a  few  simple  drawings. 

Only  one  aid  for  the  student  remains  to  be  described.  To 
require  theses  is  to  expect  more  than  the  average  student  can 
give,  in  time  and  thought.  It  is  well,  however,  to  encourage 
them  ;  and  it  will  almost  always  be  found  that  the  best  writer 
has  also  the  best  general  knowledge  of  the  course.  The  only 
general  instruction  given  in  connection  with  the  course  is 
summed  up  in  the 

HINTS  TO  THESIS  WRITERS. 

1.  Be  sure  you  are  willing  to  do  the  necessary  work. 

2.  Select  a  subject  which  interests  you,  if  possible  in  a  limited 

field,  but  over  a  long  period. 

3.  Begin  by  noting  the  chief  authorities. 

a.  Furnished  by  the  instructor. 

b.  In  Poole's  Index  and  the  Q.  P.  Indexes. 

c.  In  the  Subject  Catalogue, 


AMERICAN    HISTORY.  29 

d.  In  other  classified  library  catalogues. 

e.  In  accessible  bibliographies. 

Write  the  title,  author  (with  initials),  place,  and  date. 

4.  Have  a  system  of  note-taking. 

a.  Note  only  one  subject  on  each  piece  of  paper. 

6.  Note  the  authority,  volume,  and  page,  for  each  quotation  01 

abstract, 
c.  Preferably  use  loose  sheets,  arranging  as  you  go. 

5.  From  the  general  authorities,  make  out  a  synopsis  of  the  chief 

points  which  are  to  be  studied,  observing : 

a.  New  authorities  and  references  for  extension  of  details ; 

b.  Chronological  development ; 

c.  Salient  sub-heads  of  your  subject. 

6.  Extend  the  details  which  appear  to  you  to  need  further  exam- 

ination.  If  necessary  make  synopses  of  the  sub-heads.    Make 
references  for  other  sub-heads,  but  abstract  them  later. 

7.  Arrange   your  sheets  of  notes  in  a  logical  form,  sub-heads 

under  main  heads.     Choose  between  chronological  or  topical 
arrangement,  or  a  combination. 

8.  Compose  the  thesis. 

a.  First  settling  the  proportions. 

b.  Introducing  striking  quotations. 

c.  Giving  exact  references  for  all  important  statements  of  fact. 

9.  "Write  only  on  one  side  of  your  paper,  and  leave  space  for 

your  foot-notes  on  the  same  page  as  the   text  which   they 

illustrate. 

10.  Do  your  work  throughout  as  though  it  were  to  appear  in  print. 
J.1,  Add  a  bibliography  of  authorities,  with  brief  remarks  on  the 

bearing  of  the  most  important. 

The  value  of  the  work  to  the  student  needs  no  argument ; 
and  the  results  at  Harvard  have  been  such  as  to  justify  the 
system.  Those  who  engage  in  it  find  their  interest  in  the 
whole  field  aroused ;  they  are  quicker  to  seize  on  the  great 
principles  of  the  subject,  and,  in  some  cases,  they  do  work 
of  real  scientific  value. 


30  METHOD   OF    TEACHING 

The  means  employed  to  keep  students  up  to  their  work 
may  be  very  briefly  described.  The  first  is,  a  series  of  writ- 
ten exercises.  Perhaps  the  most  helpful  are  the  brief  written 
suggestions  on  questions  raised  in  the  lectures,  to  which  ref- 
erence has  already  been  made.  They  can  be  arranged  so  as 
to  call  for  a  little  original  thinking.  The  second  test  is  a 
system  of  brief  examinations,  —  perhaps  ten  or  fifteen  min- 
utes, once  a  week  ;  they  may  be  contrived  to  require  the 
application  of  principles,  developed  in  the  lectures,  to  new 
specific  cases.  A  third  means,  the  recitation  or  quiz,  takes 
time  from  the  lectures,  and  is  nearly  impossible  in  a  large 
class.  The  main  dependence  is  on  the  regular  examinations, 
twice  a  year.  Questions  can  always  be  so  framed  as  to  call 
for  thought  rather  than  for  a  memory  of  details  ;  and  an 
opportunity  may  be  given  to  put  most  of  the  time  on  two  or 
three  general  questions,  testing  the  knowledge  of  the  whole 
subject. 

NOTE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION.  —  Useful  as  is  the  system 
of  special  maps  and  charts  for  graphic  illustrations  of  his- 
tory, and  stimulating  to  the  students  as  they' prove,  in  prac- 
tice it  is  found  somewhat  irksome  to  prepare  the  same  series 
over  and  over  again  on  the  blackboard.  An  outline  on  a 
large  scale  is  hence  a  great  convenience  where  a  large  num- 
ber of  charts  or  maps  of  the  same  region  is  necessary.  The 
first  copy  may  be  enlarged  from  any  small  map  by  a  simple 
process.  Divide  the  small  map  into  squares  (by  pencil  lines 
on  its  surface  or  on  oiled  paper  stretched  over  it) ,  lay  out 
the  large  paper  in  proportional  squares,  and  strike  up  the 
outlines  by  hand  :  the  form  will  be  nearly  enough  correct  for 
the  purpose.  To  reproduce  the  large  outline  thus  drawn  is 
a  matter  of  some  difficulty.  Perhaps  there  is  no  better  way 
than  to  prick  through  the  principal  angles,  though  it  is  at 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  31 

best  unsatisfactory.  For  his  own  classes,  the  writer  has 
had  drawn  and  printed  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States, 
62x88  inches,  in  four  sections.  It  has  proved  so  easy  to 
make  permanent  colored  maps  upon  this  outline,  and  the 
system  has  been  so  useful,  that  permission  has  been  given 
for  its  reproduction  and  improvement ;  and  it  is  now  issued 
by  the  publisher  of  this  book. 

Coordinate  paper  in  size  and  ruling  suitable  for  a  class- 
room is  nowhere  to  be  had  unless  specially  ordered.  It 
ma}-,  of  course,  be  ruled  off  by  hand.  Appended  is  a  speci- 
men, in  reduced  size,  of  a  chart  designed  by  the  writer,  and 
found  interesting  by  students.  In  the  original  the  lines  of 
curve  are  colored,  and  therefore  much  easier  to  separate 
from  each  other. 

For  class  use,  the  small  outline  maps  of  the  United  States, 
from  the  plates  of  the  census  report  of  1880,  have  been  found 
better  than  those  of  the  signal  service  mentioned  above.  They 
are  10x16  inches,  and  cost  about  two  dollars  and  a  half  a 
hundred.  They  may  be  had  through  the  publisher  of  this 
book 


l 


i 


25 


20 


15 


10 


1800         1810         1820         1830         1840         1850         1860         1870         1880 


Drawn  by  Albert  B.  Hart: 

From  Laughlin'i  Mills'  PolMnal  gr.anomv,  Applctoni'. 


THE  PRACTICAL  METHOD  IN  HIGHER  HISTORICAL 
INSTRUCTION, 


BY  EPHRAIM  EMERTON,  OF  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY. 


IN  the  academic  teaching  of  history  three  possible  methods 
of  instruction  suggest  themselves  at  once  :  the  recitation, 
the  lecture,  and  original  work.  We  may  assume  for  the 
present  that  the  discussion  as  to  the  value  of  recitation  from 
a  book  is  practically  at  an  end.  While  admitting  that  the 
power  of  accurate  re-statement  of  a  thing  learned  is  valuable 
to  the  student,  the  common  sense  of  most  has  concluded 
that  the  time  spent  by  an  educated  man  in  listening  to  such 
repetition  is  an  actual  loss  to  science,  and  that  the  brighter 
students  of  a  class  can  employ  themselves  very  much  more 
profitably  than  in  hearing  the  mistakes  of  their  duller  mates. 
Adding  to  this  that  the  learning  of  what  is  contained  in  any 
one  book,  especially  on  a  subject  admitting  wide  difference 
in  point  of  view,  can  go  but  little  way  toward  widening  or 
deepening  a  man's  mental  capacity,  and  remembering  that 
such  acquisition  is  usually  easiest  to  shallow  minds,  we  may 
at  once  relegate  recitations  to  their  proper  place,  namely,  in 
elementary  instruction,  where  they  ought  to  be  insisted  upon 
with  unbending  severity. 

The  historical  lecture,  while  liable  to  great  abuses,  has 
certainly  its  well-defined  use,  and,  therefore,  its  right  to  be. 
It  should  not  be  designed  to  convey  definite  and  detailed  in- 


82  THE   PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

formation.  That  is  the  evil  in  Germany.  Men  of  mediocre 
—  even  men  of  splendid  talents  often  commit  the  glaring 
mistake  of  spending  four  or  five  hours  a  week  in  the  dreary 
recitation  of  facts  which  their  hearers  could  gather  in  one- 
tenth  of  the  time  from  printed  books.  Perhaps  the  book 
might  even  be  the  work  of  the  very  lecturer  who  is  noAv 
making  his  capital  pay  him  a  double  interest.  I  recall  a 
course  of  lectures  on  German  History  given  by  a  man  whose 
name,  standing  among  the  very  highest  in  Germany,  served 
to  fill  his  auditorium  with  a  keenly-expectant  audience.  In 
the  course  of  a  fortnight  a  dozen  hearers  might  have  been 
counted,  scattered  about  among  the  nearly  empty  benches. 
The  instinct  of  the  students  had  shown  them  that  he  was  not 
offering  them  anything  which  they  could  not  gain  more  easily 
elsewhere. 

The  justification  of  academic  lectures  on  history,  is  that 
they  shall  contain  suggestion,  which  shall  enable  students  to 
do  their  own  reading  intelligently,  and,  therefore,  profitably. 
They  should  contain  the  result  of  varied  reading  and  re- 
search, summarizing  the  outcome  of  long  controversies, 
showing  how  events  of  one  period  explain  and  are  explained 
by  those  of  another.  It  would  take  the  inexperienced  student 
weeks  of  reading  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  men  and  events 
which  his  instructor  may  present  to  him  in  a  paragraph. 
Not  that  this  presentation  can  ever  be  accepted  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  student's  own  reading,  but  that  it  forms  the 
almost  indispensable  condition  of  a  wise  and  profitable  use 
of  historical  works.  Reading  alone  soon  becomes  repulsive 
and  wearisome  because  one  sees  no  way  out  of  it.  All 
books  seem  alike  dreary  and  stale  ;  but  let  the  living  word 
of  a  living  man  once  illumine  the  whole  study  with  its  in- 
vigorating rays,  and  the  student  finds  his  reading  filled  with 
a  meaning  he  never  dreamed  of. 


HIGHER   HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  33 

The  danger  here  I  have  already  hinted  at.      Goethe  saw 
it  clearly  enough : 

"  Denn  was  man  sohwarz  auf  weiss  besitzt 
Kami  man  getrost  nach  Hause  tragen," 

says  the  already  half -conventionalized  scholar  to  his  infernal 
counsellor.  The  scholar  cannot  be  wiser  than  his  master. 
If  a  mere  unthinking  note-taking  be  accepted  as  sufficient 
effort  on  his  part,  he  would  be  more  than  human  if  he  made 
a  greater  one.  Doubtless  the  result  will  disappoint  him. 
He  will  find  himself  at  the  end  of  his  studies  wretchedly 
equipped  for  any  scholarly  work ;  he  will  wonder  why  this  is 
so,  but  he  cannot  be  expected  to  reach  the  reason.  Let  him 
be  assured  that  the  reason  is  a  very  simple  one  ;  his  mind 
has  never  been  called  upon  for  independent,  individual  effort, 
and  it  is  only  the  mind  of  a  rare  genius  which  works  without 
being  called  upon.  It  would  seem  an  astonishing  proposition 
at  this  day  that  chemistry  or  physics  could  be  taught  without 
a  laboratory,  and  yet  it  is  not  so  very  long  since  laboratories 
were  either  not  used  at  all,  or  so  very  little  as  to  be  scarce 
worth  mentioning.  Experiment  and  demonstration  by  the 
instructor  to  his  class  go  very  little  way.  The  student  must 
have  his  chemicals  and  his  apparatus  in  his  own  hands  before 
he  can  have  any  realizing  sense  of  the  meaning  of  his  science. 
Men  have  learned  this  in  regard  to  physical  study.  In  every 
new  school  of  learning  a  well-equipped  laboratory  is  as  much 
a  necessity  as  a  well-trained  teacher.  It  remains  to  apply 
the  same  method  to  other  branches  of  education.  Here 
we  are  concerned  with  history  only,  and  the  conclusion  is 
inevitable,  that  historical  teaching,  to  be  effective,  must  not 
ronfine  itself  to  lectures,  but  must  supplement  these  by  the 
method  of  original  work. 

Attention  has  recently  been  called  to  this  subject  by  two 


34  THE   PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

articles1  by  Professor  Paul  Fre'd^ricq,  lately  of  Liege,  now 
of  G-hent,  who,  in  the  years  1881  and  1882,  visited  the 
principal  universities  of  Germany,  and  the  various  schools 
of  Paris,  to  observe  the  methods  of  higher  instruction  in 
history.  These  articles  are,  as  the  author  informs  us,  merely 
a  traveller's  notes,  without  any  pretence  at  completeness  or 
profundity.  I  have  made  use  of  them  for  certain  statistical 
information  not  elsewhere  easily  accessible.  Their  grace 
of  style  and  amiability  of  tone  make  them  altogether  quite 
attractive  reading. 

The  phrase  employed  by  Professor  Fr6d6ricq  for  the  pecu- 
liar institution  he  was  observing  is  the  "  cours  pratique,"  as 
opposed  to  the  usual  lecture-course,  which  he  calls  the  "  cours 
th&orique."  The  term  "  Pr actice -course  "  seems  to  me  really 
an  improvement  upon  the  various  originals  employed  in  the 
different  German  universities,  though  these  original  terms 
have  each  an  historical  significance  which  the  men  who  made 
them  and  have  handed  them  down  would  doubtless  be  sorry 
to  lose.  The  "  Gesellschaf  ten  "  (societies),  "Seminaria" 
(training  schools) ,  and  "  Uebungen  "  (exercises)  of  Germany 
appear  all  together  in  M.  Fred6ricq's  report  as  "  cours  pra- 
tiques "  (practice-courses) .  His  word  expresses  the  actual 
fact  that  these  classes  now  form  a  regular  part  of  the  univer- 
sity work  ;  are  numbered  among  its  published  courses  of 
instruction,  and  are  counted  as  such,  to  the  credit  of  both 
professors  and  students.  The  German  terms,  on  the  other 
hand,  express  the  fact  of  their  development  out  of  originally 
voluntary  and,  one  may  say,  extra-academic  exercises.  The 
Gesellschaft  implies  a  society  of  students  grouped  about  a 

1  "De  1'Enseignement  Superieur  de  1'Histoire."  Gand,  1882,  pp.  49.  In 
the  "Revue  de  1'Instruction  publique  en  Belgique." 

"  L'Enseignement  Superieur  de  1'Histoire  a  Paris."  Paris,  1883.  pp.  61. 
In  the  "Revue  International  de  1'Enseignement."  July  15,  1883. 


HIGHEK   HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  35 

professor,  and  working  with  him  in  lines  of  special  research, 
and  under  conditions  not  imposed  by  academic  rules,  but 
growing  out  of  the  common  enthusiasm  for  the  study  in 
hand.  Their  relation  to  their  teacher  reminds  one  of  the 
early  mediaeval  relation  of  the  university  student  to  his  lec- 
turer. It  is  personal,  feudal  almost,  for  there  is  a  bond  of 
mutual  service  here  which  adds  its  force  to  distinguish  these 
classes  from  their  contemporaries,  grouped  in  the  ordinary 
lecture-room,  and  learning  from  the  spoken  word.  While 
there  a  certain  tradition,  if  not  fixed  statute,  has  determined 
the  attitude  of  the  student  to  the  imposing  being  who  talks 
at  him  ex  cathedra,  here  all  is  voluntary,  free,  uncon- 
ventional. This  is  a  society,  a  club,  presided  over  by  a 
professor,  but  composed,  not  of  subject  students,  but  of 
"members,"  of  whom  the  guiding  scholar,  chancing  to  be 
a  professor,  is  the  chief. 

The  word  "Seminarium"  brings  us  to  another  phase  of 
the  institution  we  are  studying.  The  primitive  societj'  became 
a  training-school.  The  German,  with  his  hard-headed  prac- 
tical sense,  having  allowed  university  teaching  to  crystallize 
into  the  form  of  a  lecture-system,  saw  an  escape  from  its 
deadening  influence  upon  the  mind  in  this  new  form  of 
instruction.  This  enthusiasm  of  the  individual  student  was 
now  to  be  made  practical.  The  name  "  Seminarium"  denotes 
the  fertilizing  power  of  the  historical  "  Gesellschaf t "  on  the 
intellectual  life  of  Germany.  Out  of  these  training-schools 
came  the  men  who  gave  to  historical  science  in  Germany, 
and  through  Germany  to  the  world,  the  impulse  under  which 
it  is  now  moving. 

But  by  this  time  the  voluntary  association  had  become  a 
recognized  feature  of  university  life.  The  professor  con- 
ducted a  Seminarium  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  the  student 
who  meant  to  distinguish  himself  in  the  department  entered 


36  THE   PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

one  or  more  seminaria  equally  as  a  matter  of  course.  And 
now  comes  the  third  of  the  distinctive  names  —  the  oldest 
in  point  of  time  —  to  express  sharply  the  marked  difference 
in  hind  of  work  done  here  from  that  of  the  ordinary  class- 
room. "  Uebungen  "  still  denotes  the  practical  character  of 
the  Seminar  work,  and  is  the  one  term  from  which  M.  Fr6- 
de"ricq  has  derived  his  "  cours  pratique."  Its  meaning  is 
that  uppermost  in  the  student's  mind.  Elsewhere  he  is  a 
listener,  here  he  is  a  worker ;  no  longer  a  mere  receiver  of 
another  man's  thought,  he  becomes  an  investigator,  a  dis- 
coverer, a  creator. 

The  founder  of  practice-courses  as  an  adjunct  to  higher 
historical  instruction  is  the  veteran  professor  Leopold  Ranke, 
now,  in  his  eighty-ninth  year,  laboring  with  juvenile  enthu- 
siasm and  power  on  his  crowning  work,  a  History  of  the 
World.  As  early  as  1830  Ranke  began  to  gather  about  him 
such  students  as  desired  to  learn  the  method  of  historical 
investigation,  inviting  them  to  a  weekly  meeting  at .  his 
house.  These  meetings  appear  upon  the  Berlin  university 
programme  of  that  day  as  "  exercitationes  historicae." 
This  private  class  in  Ranke 's  study  became  in  the  truest 
sense  of  the  word  the  seminarium  for  all  future  historical 
work  in  Germany.  Among  its  early  members  were  "Waitz, 
Duncker,  Giesebrecht,  Sybel,  Adolf  Schmidt,  Wattenbach, 
and  many  others  whose  names  have  become  synonyms  for 
powerful  and  honest  work  in  opening  up  the  record  of  the 
past.  These  men,  called  to  various  universities,  carried 
with  them  the  practice-course  as  their  chief  instrument  in 
spreading  the  doctrine  of  true  historical  method  which  the 
great  master  Ranke  had  taught  them.  They  have  now  be- 
come veterans  in  their  turn,  and  their  pupils,  an  army  of  still 
younger  men,  have  carried  out  still  more  widely  the  theory  of 
the  practical  method. 


HIGHER   HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  37 

At  first  the  subject  most  often  treated  was  the  history  of 
Germany's  heroic  age,  the  mediaeval  empire ;  but  soon, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  elder  Droysen,  modern  history 
found  its  place,  and  at  present  no  department  of  historical 
research  is  without  its  practice-course  as  a  supplement  to 
theoretical  teaching.  At  Berlin  there  are  regularly  six  or 
eight  such  courses,  led  by  men  like  Mommsen,  Droysen, 
Watteubach,  Weizsacher,  Bresslau,  and  Hassel.  Other 
universities  follow  with  a  number  of  courses  proportioned  to 
their  strength  in  the  department  of  history. 

Any  ope  familiar  with  the  inner  working  of  these  classes 
feels  at  once  that  here  is  the  true  life  of  the  historical  de- 
partment. Here  it  is  that  the  professor  reveals  himself  to 
his  select  pupils  as  a  fellow-worker  with  them.  He  is  at 
work  upon  inquiries  which  are  to  bear  fruit  in  his  own  publi- 
cation, and  these  young  men  are  made  to  feel  that  they  are 
contributing  personally,  by  their  researches,  to  the  comple- 
tion of  these  works.  The  method  of  procedure  is  practically 
the  same  in  the  various  universities  and  under  the  various 
teachers.  Indeed,  it  is  but  one  method  employed  with 
endless  diversity,  according  to  the  character  of  the  man  in 
whose  hands  it  may  be.  The  essential  principle  of  the 
practice-course  is  to  lead  the  student  back  from  the  ordinary 
presentation  of  history  as  a  completed  whole  in  standard 
narratives  to  the  original  sources  from  which  these  narratives 
have  been  composed.  To  the  ordinary  student,  higher  as 
well  as  lower,  the  study  of  history  means  the  reading  of 
narratives  describing  men  and  events  in  the  form  of  more  or 
less  entertaining  stories.  He  fancies  that  he  has  passed 
from  elementary  to  higher  study  when  he  reads  somewhat 
bigger  books  and  more  of  them.  Even  the  German  ' '  Gym- 
nast "  is  liable  to  this  error.  He  may  bring  it  with  him  to 
the  university ;  he  may  even  retain  it  there  so  long  as  he 


38  THE   PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

confines  himself  to  the  hearing  of  lectures  and  collateral 
reading,  —  but  the  moment  he  passes  the  door  of  the  semi- 
narium  his  error  falls  from  him  as  by  magic.  The  charm 
which  has  heretofore  surrounded  the  names  of  great  histo- 
rians vanishes.  He  learns  to  accept  nothing  on  their  word. 
He  demands  the  proof  of  every  assertion,  or  if,  as  is  often 
the  case,  proof  be  impossible,  he  demands  at  least  evidence 
as  to  degree  of  probability.  And  this  he  does  not  blindly, 
not  in  the  spirit  of  mere  carping  criticism,  but  intelligently, 
under  the  guidance  of  men  who  are  themselves  makers  of 
books,  and  who  are  on  the  watch  at  every  step  to  detect  a 
flaw  in  his  argument,  an  error  in  his  judgment,  or  a  gap  in 
his  powers  of  perception.  Thus  he  becomes  trained,  not 
merely  learned,  as  we  use  that  phrase  to  describe  a  man  who 
has  taken  in  an  enormous  amount  of  material,  without 
regard  to  his  ability  to  use  it.  The  German  Seminarist  is 
armed  at  all  points  to  grapple  with  his  material  wherever  he 
may  find  it. 

The  ordinary  course  of  the  Seminar  work  is  somewhat  as 
follows.  The  professor  assigns  to  each  member  some  topic 
for  investigation,  usually  some  controverted  point  upon 
which  various  opinions  may  be  possible.  Often  these  topics 
are  selected  from  a  limited  period,  so  that  the  various  re- 
searches will  cross  each  other  at  many  points.  Thus  each 
student  becomes  familiar  with  the  authorities  used  by  all  the 
others,  and  is  able  to  form  an  intelligent  judgment  of  their 
work.  As  the  term  progresses,  any  student  may  be  called 
upon  to  criticise  the  work  of  every  other.  Ordinarily  the 
result  of  each  investigation  is  presented  in  the  form  of  a 
written  dissertation,  which  is  read  by  its  author,  and  publicly 
criticised,  first  by  a  member  of  the  class  selected  beforehand 
for  the  purpose,  then  by  other  members  at  their  pleasure, 
and  finally  by  the  professor  himself.  It  is  evident  that  this 


HIGHER    HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  39 

criticism  is  by  no  means  the  least  useful  part  of  the  work. 
It  is  dealt  out  with  an  unsparing  hand.  Indeed,  M.  Fre- 
d^ricq  informs  us  that  Professors  Droysen  and  Mommsen 
refused  to  admit  him  to  the  exercises  of  their  Seminars,  ex- 
cusing this  apparent  want  of  courtesy  by  saying  that  the 
presence  of  a  stranger  might  be  a  check  upon  the  unlimited 
criticism  which  was  there  the  rule. 

I  had  the  good  fortune  to  be,  during  one  year,  a  regular 
member  of  the  practice-course  of  the  elder  Droysen  in  Berlin, 
and  can  thoroughly  confirm  the  impression  received  by  M. 
FreYle"ricq.  The  criticism  was  free  and  unrestrained  to  the 
verge  of  savagery.  I  well  remember  one  unhappy  youth, 
who  ought  never  to  have  been  there,  whose  productions  were 
received  with  a  mixture  of  derision  and  scathing  logical 
analysis  which,  to  a  member  of  a  less  thick-skinned  race, 
would  have  been  torture.  At  the  same  time,  I  cannot  help 
bearing  testimony  to  the  uniform  consideration  which  I,  as  a 
stranger  and  a  foreigner,  received  from  students  and  profes- 
sor alike.  The  inspiration  of  the  Saturday  evenings  spent 
amidst  that  vigorous  intellectual  jousting  has  entered  into 
every  moment  of  subsequent  study,  and  been  a  constant 
support  in  the  effort  to  carry  on  the  impulse  there  received. 

The  papers  thus  produced,  especially  by  students  who  have 
been  for  several  terms  members  of  the  Seminar,  are  often  of 
more  than  passing  value,  are  actual  contributions  to  historical 
science.  The  younger  Droysen  began  some  time  since  to 
publish  the  more  important  papers  contributed  in  his  class  at 
Halle,  and  an  association  of  university  professors  is  now 
carrying  on  a  similar  work,  with  a  larger  scope,  and  a  wider 
promise  of  usefulness.  One  can  well  understand  that  the 
prospect  of  such  distinction  must  be  a  keen  spur  to  the 
diligence  and  activity  of  mind  of  many  a  student,  who,  under 
the  ordinary  conditions  of  the  lecture-room,  would  never  have- 
risen  above  his  fellows. 


40  THE  PRACTICAL  METHOD  IN 

Within  a  few  years  a  distinction  has  arisen  between  what 
we  may  call  private  and  public  practice-courses.  The 
former  are  such  as  I  have  been  describing,  in  which  the 
membership  is  determined  by  the  professor's  judgment  as  to 
the  capacity  and  promise  of  the  individual  student. 

The  public  courses  mark  an  innovation  upon  the  original 
plan.  Certain  professors,  strongly  impressed  with  the  abso- 
lute importance  of  the  practice-course  as  an  agent  in  in- 
struction, and  wishing  to  extend  its  advantages  to  as  many 
students  as  possible,  obtained  from  their  governments  suf- 
ficient appropriations  of  money  to  provide  working-rooms 
for  their  classes,  to  furnish  these  rooms  with  reference  libra- 
ries, and  with  all  necessary  appliances  for  study,  and  also 
to  establish  scholarships  for  regularly  enrolled  members. 
This  system,  while  offering  great  attractions  to  a  large  body 
of  students,  has  met  with  violent  opposition  from  the  more 
conservative  professors  to  whom  the  traditions  of  the  practice- 
course,  as  established  by  Ranke,  had  become  especially  dear. 
To  their  minds,  the  substitution  of  state  control  for  the  per- 
sonal relation  of  the  instructor  to  the  student  must  endanger 
the  essential  and  vital  principle  of  the  Gesellschaft.  In 
short,  they  believed  that  the  very  nature  of  the  association 
implied  the  membership  of  picked  men  only,  and  more  espe- 
cially of  such  as  proposed  to  make  historical  work  the  business 
of  their  lives.  However  this  may  be,  the  two  systems  are 
now  in  operation  side  by  side,  and  the  future  must  determine 
which  is  based  upon  the  truer  foundation.  Thus  far,  I 
incline  to  believe  that  the  conservatives  have  the  best  of 
the  argument. 

But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  practice-course  in  its 
essential  theory  has  escaped  criticism  and  opposition.  The 
point  is  made,  and  with  much  show  of  reason,  that  German 
historical  writing  has  within  the  last  two  generations  steadily 


HIGHER   HISTORICAL  INSTRUCTION.  41 

lost  in  breadth  of  view  and  in  power  of  effective  presenta- 
tion, while  its  gain  has  been  steadily  in  the  direction  of 
minute  and  careful  investigation  of  narrow  and  narrowing 
details.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  illustration  of  the  truth 
of  this  criticism  is  the  fact  that  we  are  still  without  a  satis- 
factory treatment  of  the  history  of  Germany  as  a  whole, 
while  the  number  of  treatises,  large  and  small,  upon  detached 
periods  or  single  institutions  is  simply  distracting.  There  is 
scarcely  a  point  in  the  whole  range  of  German  history  which 
has  not  given  rise  to  at  least  a  Gymnasium-program  or  a 
Doctor-dissertation.  It  seems  as  if  the  very  minuteness 
of  the  research  into  the  records  of  the  Fatherland  had 
frightened  everyone  away  from  the  task  of  moulding  this 
whole  mass  into  an  available  and  comprehensive  form. 

-  Now  the  charge  is  made  that  the  cause  of  this  deficiency 
in  graphic  power  among  German  historians  to-day  is  the 
belittling  influence  of  the  training  in  the  Seminar.  Certain 
it  is  that  both  leaders  and  followers  in  the  work  of  disin- 
terring the  German  record  from  its  long  burial,  and  of 
preparing  it  for  use  in  the  world,  have  been  the  men  who 
organized  and  developed  the  practice-course.  We  may 
admit  further,  that  if  the  practice-course  had  not  been,  the 
Monumenta  of  Pertz,  and  the  host  of  investigations  leading 
up  to  and  based  upon  that  colossal  undertaking,  could 
scarcely  have  been  produced.  But  I  incline  to  think  that 
this  character  of  minute  investigation  does  not  imply  the 
entire  absence  of  graphic  skill  or  breadth  of  historic  insight. 
It  is  rather  the  evidence  of  a  deeply-felt  reaction  from  the 
false  methods,  —  the  dramatic  form,  the  partisan  purpose, 
the  rhetorical  elaboration,  which  mark  the  historical  writing 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  falseness  of  that  method 
was  so  strongly  felt  that  men  avoided  consciously  any  ap- 
proach toward  brilliant  presentation.  Germans  especially 


42  THE   PliACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

did  not  care  to  cultivate  a  kind  of  ability  which  seemed  to 
them  of  questionable  value.  Before  philosophizing  about 
the  record,  the  record  must  be  had ;  and  so  the  last  half 
century  has  been  a  time  of  accumulation  and  preparation  of 
material  upon  which  future  philosophies  of  history  may,  if 
one  pleases,  be  constructed.  The  distinctive  character  of 
German  historical  science  has  been  an  absolute  devotion  to 
the  discovery  of  historical  documents  ;  to  comparing  them, 
and  thus  ascertaining  their  value  ;  and  then  to  publishing 
them  in  a  form  convenient  for  the  use  of  scholars. 

If  one  must  choose  between  a  school  of  history  whose  main 
characteristic  is  esprit,  and  one  which  rests  upon  a  faithful 
and  honest  effort  to  base  its  whole  narration  upon  the  great- 
est attainable  number  of  recorded  facts,  we  cannot  long 
hesitate.  This  character  of  diligence  and  honesty  of  research 
into  the  actual  story  of  the  past  has  been  stamped  upon 
Germany  by  the  work  of  the  seminary.  Training  has  taken 
the  place  of  brilliancy,  and  the  whole  civilized  world  is  to-day 
reaping  the  benefit.  Doubtless,  if  this  mechanical  skill  were 
to  be  the  sole  object  of  instruction,  the  result  would  be  most 
unsatisfactory.  After  all,  it  is  the  power  of  arranging  and 
combining  his  material  which  makes  the  great  historian. 
Ranke  himself  is  the  triumphant  vindication  of  his  system. 
Let  one  but  read  the  modest  words  of  his  preface  to  the 
German  History,  where  he  speaks  of  mastering  the  contents 
of  something  like  a  hundred  folio  volumes  of  proceedings  of 
the  Diet  in  one  library,  and  as  many  more  in  another,  before 
putting  pen  to  paper,  and  then  let  one  turn  to  his  narrative, 
In  which  the  spoils  of  this  gigantic  research  are  utilized  with 
telling  power,  and  one  sees  how  in  the  hands  of  the  master 
these  two  elements  —  minute  research  and  gift  of  presenta- 
tion—  are  combined  to  produce  a  truly  great  historical 
work. 


HIGHER    HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION. 


43 


So  it  must  be  with  instruction,  —  the  training  of  the  hand 
must  not  exclude  the  culture  of  the  mind.  Nor  does  this 
seem  to  be,  even  in  Germany,  a  threatening  danger.  With 
Treitschke,  lecturing  in  an  improvised  auditorium  to  seven 
hundred  students ;  with  Droysen,  holding  three  hundred  to 
a  course  of  lectures  on  modern  European  history ;  with 
Georg  Voigt  delighting  a  crowded  audience  in  Leipzig  with 
his  brilliant  picture  of  the  French  Revolution,  —  there  can 
be  no  fear  that  the  student  will  be  left  without  inspiration  to 
broad  and  liberal  reflection  upon  the  great  movements  of 
history.  Admitting  a  certain  tendency  to  narrowness  in  the 
technical  training  of  the  seminary,  there  is  the  widest  oppor- 
tunity for  counteracting  it  and  making  it  effective  by  the 
broader  view  and  the  more  comprehensive  range  of  the 
public  lecture. 

The  following  table,  compiled  from  the  "  Deutscher  Univer- 
sitats-Kalender,"  shows  the  amount  of  historical  instruction 
offered  in  1883-4  by  the  seven  German  universities  which 
pay  most  attention  to  the  subject.  The  proportion  of  prac- 
tice-courses to  theoretical  teaching  may  easily  be  perceived. 


d 
a 

^ 

a 

^5 

cu 

o 

>> 

U 

• 

^ 

Universal. 

Oriental. 

Greek  and  R 

Mediaeval. 

Modern. 

Contemporai 

German. 

"3 

S 

France. 

England. 

t 

• 

i 

53 

Sources  &  M 

Diplomatics. 

Palaeographj 

Chronology. 

Practice-Cou 

c 
H 

Geography. 

BERLIN  

1 

1 

ft 

1 

4 

1 

2 

IPr 

1 

1 

3 

g 

'"'(i 

4 

LEIPSIC      .... 

1 

4 

1 

2 

4 

IPr. 

1 

2 

1 

8 

25 

4 

HALLE  

9 

4 

1 

1 

4 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

21 

2 

BRESLAU   .... 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2Pr. 

1 

1 

5 

14 

1 

GOTTINGEN      .      .      . 

2 

2 

4 

1 

1 

4 

14 

2 

BONN     

3 

2 

1 

•_' 

1 

4 

1:5 

2 

HEIDELBERG      .    . 

1 

15 

1 

1 

2 

8 

44  THE   PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

But  perhaps  the  best  proof  of  the  value  of  the  practical 
method  in  historical  teaching  is  its  progress  and  its  success 
in  countries  outside  of  Germany,  notably  in  France.1  Until 
within  twenty  years,  there  had  scarcely  been  such  a  thing  as 
real  historical  instruction  in  France.  There  were,  to  be 
sure,  at  the  ancient  College  de  France,  courses  of  history, 
held  by  men  of  distinguished  excellence  as  historians  and 
lecturers  ;  but,  strange  as  it  sounds  to  our  ears,  these  lectures 
were  not  addressed  to  students  at  all.  They  were  held  in 
open  halls,  where  all  the  world  might  come,  and  the  audience, 
varying  with  each  lecture,  was  composed  of  women,  travellers, 
and  old  men,  of  whom  many  chose  this  opportunity  for  their 
afternoon  nap.  If  here  and  there  a  young  man  was  seen,  he 
was  in  no  relation  to  the  lecturer.  He  had  only  to  take  his 
notes,  and  do  the  best  he  could  with  them. 

It  is  evident  that  this  sort  of  historical  treatment  of  any 
subject  must  be  wholly  wanting  in  every  element  of  fruitful- 
ness.  It  could  never  produce  men,  who,  in  their  time,  should 
become  effective  teachers  and  writers.  The  glaring  absurdity 
of  such  a  system  was  visible  to  all  the  rising  generation  of 
scholars,  but  the  method  of  reform  was  doubtful.  The  pro- 
cess finally  adopted  was  to  go  around  the  ancient  forms,  and 
to  establish  new  schools  upon  a  different  basis.  This  process 
has  now  been  going  on,  with  interruptions,  from  the  time  of 
the  first  Napoleon.  The  final  result  is  a  complex  of  schools, 
each  with  a  certain  purpose,  with  a  separate  government 
support,  its  own  buildings  or  rooms,  and  its  own  pupils. 
And  yet,  so  often  do  the  purposes  of  these  schools  cross 
each  other,  that  their  separation  cannot  be  kept  complete, 
and  simply  causes  a  vast  and  inexcusable  waste  of  money, 


1  The  details  of  the  French  system  are  taken  mainly  from  Professor 
Fredericq's  article. 


HIGHER   HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  45 

time,  and  energy.      No  less  than  five  different  schools  in 
Paris  are  devoted  wholly  or  in  part  to  the  study  of  history. 

1.  The  College  de  France,  dating  from  the  time  of  Francis 
I.,  continues,  almost  unchanged,  the  traditions  of  the  past. 
M.  Fr^dericq  heard  some  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of 
France  lecturing  in  enormous  halls  to  a  score  or  so  of  chance 
hearers,  of   whom  scarce  one  could  have  had  any  serious 
scholarly  purpose. 

2.  The  Faculte"  des  Lettres,  the  successor  of  the  ancient 
Sor bonne,  occupies  the  building  which  still  perpetuates  the 
name  of  that  venerable  institution.     Here,  too,  until  within 
a   few  years,  the  instruction  was  mainly  intended  for  hearers 
rather  than  for  pupils;  but  now,  mainly  through  the  energy 
of  Victor  Duruy,   as  minister  of   public  instruction  under 
Napoleon  III.,  the  substitution  of  pupils  for  hearers  has  be- 
come almost  complete,  and  many  of  the  more  serious  courses 
are  now  designated  as  cours  fermes,  to  which  admission  can 
be  had  only  on  the  written  order  of  the  Dean.     The  same 
general  purpose   has  been   followed  in  the  appointment  of 
promising  young  scholars  as  maltres  de  conferences,  a  posi- 
tion corresponding  somewhat  to  that  of  the  privatdocent  in 
the  German  University.      Students  under  the  Facult6   des 
Lettres  are  in  training  for  a  special  diploma  as  teachers  of 
history.      This  diploma  has  existed  only  since   1880,   and 
marks  the  recognition  of  history  as  one  among  the  sciences 
demanding  trained  teachers. 

3.  The  I2cole  des  Chartes  was  founded  in  1821,  but  lived 
a  precarious  existence  until  1847,  when  it  was  provided  with 
sufficient  quarters  and  a  competent  staff  of  instructors.     Here 
we  may  learn  especially  the  method  of  historical  research. 
Instruction   is   given   in   palaeography,  romance  languages, 
bibliography   and   classification   of   libraries    and    archives, 
diplomatics,  political,  administrative,  and  judicial  institutions 


46 

of  France,  the  civil  and  canon  law,  and  the  archaeology  of 
the  middle  ages.  Here  is  to  be  found  at  least  as  great,  if  not 
a  greater  opportunity,  for  preparation  in  the  art  of  writing 
history,  than  can  be  obtained  at  any  German  university. 
The  excellent  ' '  Bibliothe'que  de  1'^cole  des  Chartes  "  con- 
tains the  work  of  professors,  pupils,  and  graduates. 

4.  The  Ecole  Normale  Sup6rieure  dates  back  beyond  the 
Revolution,  but  was  also  first  placed  upon  a  sound  working 
basis  in  1847.      History  enters  here  as  part  of  a  general 
course  for  all  students  during  two  years,  and  may  be  made  a 
specialty  during  the  third  and  final  year.     During  this  third 
year,  pupils  may  attend  courses  in  the  other  schools.     The 
distinct  purpose  of  the  Ecole  Normale  is  the  preparation  of 
teachers.     Only  a  limited  number  of  pupils  can  enter  each 
year, — perhaps  one  in  every  six  or  seven  applicants,  —  a 
curious  instance  of  protecting  industry. 

5.  The  Ecole  Pratique  des   Hautes  Eludes  was  another 
creation  of  Minister  Duruy  in  the  year  1868.    The  condition 
of  French  advanced  teaching,  even  as  late  as  that,  was  such 
that  M.  Duruy,  in  presenting  his  plan  to  the  Emperor,  was 
forced  to  say  that  a  student  in  Paris,  however  able  lecturers 
he  might  hear,  and  however  many  and  excellent  books  might 
be  accessible  to  him,  was  left  altogether  without  the  personal 
guidance  necessary  to  apply  his  study  most  effectively.    This 
was  true  of   all  subjects.      The  remedy  suggested  by  the 
minister  was  to  offer,  in  addition  to  all  the  valuable  and  in- 
teresting instruction  then  given,  a  series  of  practice-courses, 
which,  taken  together,  should  form  the  £cole  Pratiques  des 
Hautes  Eludes.     One  of  the  four  branches  of  this  school  was 
that  of   history  and   philology.      Beginning   with  but  few 
pupils,  the  historical  and  philological  branch  of  the  Hautes 
Etudes  now  numbers  twenty-five  professors,  and  offers  more 
than  fifty  practice-courses.     Before  presenting  the  plan  for 


HIGHER   HISTORICAL  INSTRUCTION.  47 

this  new  departure,  a  systematic  study  of  methods  in  use  in 
other  countries  was  made,  and,  of  course,  one  sees  clearly 
where  the  real  model  was  found.  The  Conference  of  France 
is  the  "  Seminar"  of  Germany.  The  most  prominent  leaders 
in  the  new  movement  have  themselves  studied  in  Germany. 
M.  Alfred  Maury  is  director  of  this  department,  aided  by 
M.  Gabriel  Monod,  known  to  all  the  world  of  scholars  as  the 
editor,  first  of  the  "  Revue  Critique,"  and  afterwards,  of  the 
"  Revue  Historique,"  altogether  the  leading  historical  periodi- 
cal of  the  world.  From  the  beginning,  the  administration  has 
been  largely  in  the  hands  of  young  and  comparatively  little 
known  men,  who  were  in  sympathy  with  the  practical  method, 
and  had  no  ambition  to  become  historical  orators  in  the  grand 
style  of  the  previous  generation.  Thus,  to  the  brilliant  and 
vivacious  Frenchman,  as  well  as  to  the  more  stolid  and  plod- 
ding German,  it  has  become  clear,  that  to  make  a  science 
fruitful,  productive  of  new  work  and  new  men,  it  must  be  made 
practical.  The  record  of  the  past,  as  it  lies  there  in  inscrip- 
tions, institutions,  legal  records,  names  of  places,  coins, 
systems  of  chronology,  as  well  as  in  consciously  written 
histories,  must  be  put  into  the  hands  of  students,  and  they 
must  be  trained  in  the  way  to  use  them. 

There  is  something  positively  pathetic  in  the  words  of  M. 
Lavisse,  in  the  year  1880,  to  the  pupils  of  the  Faculte"  des 
Lettres.1 

' '  I  recall  the  time  when  I  was  a  candidate  for  the  histori- 
cal diploma,  and,  better  still,  the  time,  far  less  remote,  when 
I  watched  the  third-year  pupils  of  the  ficole  Normale  at 
their  work.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  they  set  them- 
selves bravely  at  their  task,  without  a  breathing-space  from 


1  Quoted  by  M.  Fredericq,  from  the  "  Revue  Internationale  de  1'En- 
seignement"  for  February  15,  1881. 


48  THE   PRACTICAL  METHOD   IN 

morning  till  night.  They  helped  each  other,  but  each  did 
the  burden  of  his  work  for  himself.  The  study-room  was 
filled  with  books  borrowed  from  the  emptied  shelves  of  the 
library.  The  drawers  were  filled  with  well-arranged  piles  of 
notes.  Their  comrades,  who  were  preparing  for  other  exami- 
nations, especially  in  philosophy,  where  the  demand  was  less 
burdensome,  made  fun  of  the  unhappy  historical  students, 
whom  they  considered  as  mere  day -laborers.  But  they  held 
out  bravely.  History,  thank  God,  has  so  potent  a  charm 
that  it  helps  one  to  bear  fatigue,  as  the  hope  of  discovering 
a  vast  new  horizon  sustains  the  weary  traveller  who  climbs 
painfully  the  steep  mountain  side  !  But  some  of  the  travel- 
lers give  out,  and  I  have  scarce  known  one  of  our  future  his- 
torians who  was  not  overcome  by  discouragement  on  his 
way.  It  comes  when  one  has  passed  over  the  grand  ques- 
tions which  attracted  him  at  first,  and  finds  that  he  has 
barely  glanced  at  their  surface,  while  he  is  already  pressed 
upon  by  a  throng  of  new  ones,  less  important,  but  any  one 
of  which  may,  as  we  say,  '  be  given.'  '  Do  you  think,  sir,' 
they  say  to  the  tutor,  '  that  we  shall  have  this  question  ?  or 
this?'  and  the  tutor  cannot  always  say  '  No.'  There  comes 
a  moment  when  the  student  feels  that  he  is  going  to  drown 
himself.  He  loses  his  head,  and  begins  to  draw  up  lists  of 
the  kings  of  Egypt,  the  sultans  of  Turkey,  or  the  Hausa 
cities,  and  rushes  feverishly  from  the  successors  of  Alexan- 
der to  those  of  Charlemagne,  from  the  Samnite  war  to  the 
wars  of  the  Roses,  from  the  tributaries  of  the  Danube  to 
those  of  the  Mississippi,  from  Hanno  and  Pytheas  to  Living- 
stone and  Nachtigal,  taking  Marco  Polo  on  the  way.  He 
comes  down  from  books  to  outlines,  and  from  outlines  to 
manuals.  He  keeps  before  him  the  lyceum  program ;  he 
divides  it  into  numbers,  and  marks  off  twenty  or  thirty  num- 
bers on  which  he  is  prepared.  There  remain  a  hundred 


HIGHER    HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  49 

about  which  he  knows  not  a  word.  He  comes  up  to  his 
examination  jaded  out,  and,  what  is  worse,  trained  to 
wretched  habits,  which  may  lead  his  mind  astray  forever,  and 
disgust  him  with  all  honest  work." 

Out  of  this  slough  of  despair  and  self-deception  French 
students  have  been  rescued  through  the  influence  of  the  Ger- 
man Seminar  system,  applied  with  that  wider  tact  which 
might  have  been  expected  from  a  people  more  susceptible 
to  general  ideas,  and  less  in  danger  of  becoming  mechanical 
in  their  methods. 


We  are  thus  brought  to  the  point  toward  which  all  that  I 
have  said  thus  far  has  been  tending,  —  the  possibility  of  use- 
fulness for  the  historical  practice-course  in  America.  It  will 
be  generally  admitted  that  our  historical  instruction  is  at 
least  in  an  undeveloped  condition.  Whether  as  a  reflection 
of  the  ultra-American  notion  that  we  here  are  independent  of 
all  tradition,  have  nothing  to  learn  from  the  experience  of 
the  past,  or  for  whatever  reason,  the  fact  is  that  history 
forms  an  extremely  unimportant  element  in  our  plans  of 
education.  The  New  England  colleges  require  for  admission 
only  a  nodding  acquaintance  with  Greek  and  Romar  history, 
an  amount  of  knowledge  which  may  be  readily  taken  in 
through  the  pores  while  "reading"  classic  authors.  Of 
European  and  American  history  the  ordinary  Freshman  has 
a  colossal  ignorance.  Within  these  Eastern  colleges  them- 
selves the  situation  is  not  very  much  better.  It  would  be 
idle  to  assert  that  history  has  as  yet  reached  anything  like 
an  equality  with  classics,  mathematics,  or  science,  either  in 
the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  it  or  in  the  character  of  the 
men  to  whom  its  teaching  is  entrusted.  As  to  the  average 


50  THE   PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

Western  college,  the  attention  paid  to  history  is  simply  in- 
finitely small,  and  may  be  neglected.  Until  within  a  few 
years  such  a  thing  as  a  special  preparation  for  teaching  his- 
tory had  not  been  heard  of.  Any  classical  instructor  could 
teach  the  history  of  Greece  or  Rome,  no  matter  if  he  had 
never  in  his  life  looked  into  his  classics  with  any  other  pur- 
pose than  to  solve  grammatical  puzzles.  Any  "  cultivated 
gentleman "  could  teach  European  history ;  and  as  for 
America,  one  might  suppose  a  knowledge  of  its  history  to 
form  a  part  of  those  innate  ideas  some  philosophers  tell  us 
about,  for  all  the  effort  visible  to  compass  it  by  way  of 
education.1 

Within  these  few  years  a  very  great  change  has  taken 
place.  The  leaven  of  the  German  method  has  begun  to  work 
among  us.  Young  Americans  at  German  universities,  be- 
coming impressed  with  the  value  of  the  system  of  instruction 
there,  saw  the  hope  of  occupation  and  usefulness  in  trans- 
planting this  method  to  our  shores.  They  threw  themselves 
with  a  new  energy  into  the  study  of  history  as  a  science  by 
itself,  and  their  enthusiasm  was  rewarded  by  finding  on  their 
return  that  the  leading  colleges  of  their  own  land  had  kept 
pace  with  the  demand  of  the  time  and  were  ready  to  employ 
them.  The  number  of  these  younger  scholars  is  not  very 
great.  The  road  is  an  arduous  one  ;  the  rewards  tardy  and 
never  dazzling.  But,  in  spite  of  obstacles,  the  number  of 
devoted  scholars  in  this  field  is  increasing.  They  are  reason- 
ably certain  of  finding  employment.  The  lesser  colleges 
must  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  the  greater  ;  where  classes  of 
history  do  not  exist,  they  will  be  created.  The  elementary 

1  Since  the  above  was  written,  attention  has  been  called  to  the  defects 
In  American  historical  teaching  by  President  Eliot  of  Harvard  University, 
in  an  address  at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  printed  in  the  ' '  Century ' '  maga- 
zine for  June,  1884. 


HIGHER   HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  51 

teaching  must  become  better  and  more  widely  diffused  as  the 
students  of  our  colleges  go  out  from  under  enthusiastic  teach- 
ers to  become  teachers  in  their  turn.  So  far  as  quantity 
goes,  we  may  well  believe  that  the  future  of  historical  teach- 
ing in  our  country  is  secure.  It  is  now  with  quality  that  we 
are  concerned.  As  soon  as  a  branch  of  science  takes  a  rec- 
ognized place  upon  the  college  programme,  the  question  of 
method  becomes  of  the  first  importance. 

If  my  argument  as  to  recitations  and  lectures  shall  have 
been  approved,  it  follows  that  the  method  of  original  work 
remains  as  the  indispensable  supplement  to  whatever  other 
means  of  instruction  the  wise  teacher  may  employ.  I  am 
aware  that  there  is  an  intelligent  opposition  to  this  view. 
There  are  educators  who  maintain  that  the  original  work  of 
college  students  is  in  itself  of  so  little  value  that  it  is  a  mere 
waste  of  time.  These  youngsters  cannot  be  expected  to 
produce  anything  better  than  what  now  exists,  and  would 
much  better  spend  their  time  in  learning  the  best  of  what 
has  been  done.  "As  well  advise  students  of  Shakespeare," 
said  an  accomplished  professor  of  English,  ' '  to  practise 
themselves  in  composing  plays,  in  the  hope  of  some  day 
producing  something  better  than  their  master." 

But  this  line  of  argument  wholly  misses  the  point  at  issue. 
It  is  not  for  the  sake  of  the  immediate  results  that  the  prac- 
tice-course is  to  be  commended.  The  student  in  chemistry 
does  not  expect  to  gain  from  his  own  early  and  awkward 
experiments  any  new  or  startling  results.  He  only  aims  to 
comprehend,  as  one  can  only  do  by  personal  experiment, 
those  laws  of  chemical  action  already  laid  down  by  previous 
investigation.  So  the  student  of  history  may  not  expect  to 
arrive  at  new  results  during  the  time  of  his  apprenticeship, 
but  he  will  certainly  learn  how  other  men  have  arrived  at 
their  results,  and  will  thus  know  how  to  measure  these  at 


52  THE   PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

their  true  value.  We  may  even  go  a  step  further.  Just 
as  here  and  there  a  rarely  gifted  mind,  working  patiently 
through  hands  and  eyes  in  the  chemical  laboratory,  may 
strike  out  a  truth  which  has  escaped  the  experience  of  the 
past,  so  the  vigorous  mind,  working  out  by  means  of  origi- 
nal investigation  problems  of  history,  may  here  and  there 
light  upon  a  conclusion  which  shall  at  once  elevate  his  work 
to  the  rank  of  distinguished  excellence. 

In  natural  science  we  have  come  to  recognize  the  absolute 
necessity  of  practical  methods,  and  the  expression  of  this  is 
found  in  the  countless  chemical,  physical,  zoological,  and 
geological  laboratories  now  used  even  in  the  most  element- 
ary scientific  instruction. 

But,  now,  are  not  these  illustrations  of  a  great  general  law 
of  education?  Do  they  not  declare  that  in  moral  science,  as 
well  as  in  physical,  the  practical  method  of  instruction  is  the 
only  effectual  method  ?  I  believe  that  underneath  all  schemes 
and  devices  and  systems  and  theories  of  education  there  lies 
one  single  great  principle, — that  one  learns,  in  any  true  sense 
of  the  word,  only  that  to  which  he  puts  the  whole  force  of 
his  own  mind.  We  might  throw  away  all  our  machinery,  and 
still  the  man  who  should  put  the  force  of  his  mind  upon  the 
similarities  of  structure  in  flowers  could  produce  a  system  of 
botany.  Without  a  laboratory  or  a  book  the  human  mind 
would  be  capable  of  results,  great  because  original,  if  it 
should  turn  itself  with  single  devotion  to  dissecting  animals, 
breaking  and  comparing  stones,  watching  the  developments 
of  foetal  life,  or  following  out  any  other  of  those  processes  by 
which  our  present  knowledge  of  the  material  world  has  been 
gained.  And,  conversely,  given  all  our  magnificent  machin- 
ery Qf  instruction,  and  the  mind  which  does  not  apply  itself 
to  the  problems  before  it,  which  is  content  to  simply  absorb 
what  is  offered  to  it  without  vigorous  action  of  its  own,  may 


HIGHER   HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  53 

pass  through  the  mill  from  hopper  to  bin  without  any  change, 
excepting  that,  like  the  grain,  it  has  grown  smaller  in  the  pro- 
cess. I  take  it  that  one  very  strong  reason  for  the  popu- 
larity of  physical  science  in  these  latter  years  is  found  in  its 
method  of  study.  The  senses  are  reached  more  easily  than 
the  reflecting  powers.  Minds  to  which  history,  philosophy, 
law,  seem  mere  accumulations  of  learning  in  books,  —  learn- 
ing which  is  to  be  got  at  only  by  years  of  reading  and  remem- 
bering, —  are  attracted  instantly  by  the  manual  processes 
which  introduce  them  into  the  study  of  natural  law.  And 
until  lately  they  have  been  justified  in  supposing  that  all 
those  branches  of  study  which  they  somewhat  sneeringly, 
perhaps,  designate  as  culture  studies,  were  nothing  but 
masses  of  fictitious  learning,  founded  upon  nothing,  and 
leading  to  nothing. 

If  we  think  for  a  moment  of  the  slough  into  which  the 
study  of  language  had  fallen  twenty-five  years  ago,  and  out 
of  which  it  has  not  yet  wholly  freed  itself,  we  can  understand 
why  the  phrase  "  classical  study  "  had  come  to  be  almost 
a  reproach.  "What  has  redeemed  linguistic  study  from  its 
downfall  has  been  the  use  of  new  methods,  practical  methods 
in  acquiring  language,  and  the  application  of  this  acquired 
knowledge  to  the  discovery  of  new  truth  in  archaeology, 
ethnology,  and  in  every  other  branch  of  human  learning. 
Now,  instead  of  aimlessly  cramming  a  Greek  grammar  into 
their  pupils,  enlightened  teachers  are  teaching  them  to  read 
and  write  Greek,  then  to  use  Greek,  and  thus  to  love  and 
appreciate  Greek.  Or,  if  we  glance  at  political  science,  we 
find  that  where  twenty-five  years  ago  there  was  one  teacher, 
now  there  are  a  dozen,  and  we  see  again  that  men  are  learn- 
ing no  longer  by  studying  so  many  pages  a  day  out  of  a 
book,  but  by  putting  their  own  powers  of  mind  upon  ques- 
tions whose  solution  can  be  reached  by  no  other  process 


54  THE   PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

Wise  teachers  of  philosophy  are  forcing  their  students  to 
grapple  with  problems  of  the  mind,  and  so  giving  them 
power  to  follow  and  appreciate  the  work  of  those  who 
have  gone  before. 

Thus  everywhere  we  see  the  conviction  gaining  ground  that 
the  method  of  practice  is  indeed  the  only  effectual  method. 
Laboratories  in  natural  science,  the  "natural  method"  of 
learning  language,  instruction  by  topics  instead  of  by  text- 
books,—  all  these  are  parts  of  one  movement  towards  a 
higher  and  more  effectual  standard  of  instruction.  How 
does  it  stand  now  with  history?  Perhaps  more  than  any 
other  study,  history  has  suffered,  and  is  suffering,  from  that 
misconception  I  have  alluded  to,  that  it  means  only  a  dreary 
mass  of  facts,  dates,  and  events,  strung  along  like  so  many 
beads  on  a  chain,  and  with  no  more  distinction  in  value  or 
meaning.  It  is  the  rarest  thing  to  find  a  man  who  has  any 
idea  whatever  about  the  materials  of  historical  writing,  or  of 
the  methods  used  in  dealing  with  these  materials.  Even 
educated  men  are  inclined  to  regard  history  as  a  collection 
of  stories  merely,  more  or  less  entertaining  to  read,  but  not 
having  any  really  serious  bearing  upon  the  present  active 
life  of  men.  That  there  is  a  science  of  history,  with  its 
apparatus,  its  schools,  its  devotees^  and  its  great  results 
already  reached,  is  an  extremely  unfamiliar  fact. 

A  professor  of  chemistry  once  asked  me  to  explain  what 
original  work  in  history  could  mean.  He  had  supposed  that 
all  history  was  in  the  books,  and  that  all  one  had  to  do  was 
to  read  these.  One  could  not,  he  fancied,  make  new  history 
as  one  made  new  experiments  and  discovered  new  relations 
in  his  own  science.  The  answer  made  to  him  may  be  in 
place  here.  Original  work  in  history  consists  in  an  inquiry 
into  the  sources  of  authority  for  a  given  period  or  for  a  given 
statement  or  series  of  statements.  Every  conscientious  his- 


HIGHER   HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  55 

torian  of  to-day  goes  through  such  a  process  iu  preparing 
his  narrative,  but  this  process  is  not  final.  The  mass  of 
material  for  any  period  or  for  any  series  of  events  is  so  great 
that  the  powers  of  one  man  in  one  lifetime  are  not  sufficient 
to  grapple  with  it.  There  must  still  be  a  multitude  of  special 
investigations  which  he  cannot  pursue,  a  multitude  of  points 
still  left  obscure.  These  furnish  the  subjects  for  the  original 
work  of  the  future.  A  history  of  the  world,  for  example,  is 
to  the  historical  scholar  not  a  final  account  of  what  has  hap- 
pened since  the  world  began,  but  rather  a  vast  encyclopedia 
of  problems  awaiting  solution.  He  cannot  meet  them  all ; 
he  must  content  himself  with  selecting  one  or  two  upon 
which  he  shall  spend  the  labor  of  a  life. 

Now  the  practical  question  is,  how  can  this  original  work 
be  made  a  fruitful  means  of  instruction  in  our  higher  schools  ? 
In  answering  this  question,  we  may  be  guided  by  the  expe- 
rience of  Germany.  It  is  our  problem  to  secure  the  advan- 
tages and  avoid  the  dangers  to  which  I  have  already  called 
attention.  Emphasis  was  laid,  it  will  be  remembered,  upon 
the  voluntary  character  of  the  various  associations  which 
were  classed  together  under  the  name  of  practice-courses. 
This  voluntary  character  must  be  retained  whenever  the 
practice-course  is  made  at  home  among  us.  It  is  inconceiv- 
able that  whole  classes  of  students  should  be  called  upon 
to  do  original  work  in  any  subject  with  any  prospect  of 
success.  The  practice-course  is  not  designed  to  replace 
more  ordinary  methods  of  instruction  but  to  supplement 
them.  It  presupposes  an  election  of  studies  by  which  it 
should  be  possible  to  bring  only  devoted  students  under  its 
influence.  With  these  conditions,  it  should  be  the  duty  and 
the  pride  of  every  historical  instructor  to  conduct,  at  the 
side  of  his  theoretical  courses,  another  for  practice  in  the 
especial  line  of  work  he  is  engaged  upon.  Supposing  there 


56  THE    PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

be  at  a  given  college  no  professor  of  ancient  history,  then 
classical  instructors  should  make  it  their  business  to  guide 
their  most  promising  pupils  in  historical  research,  using  as 
materials  the  classic  authors,  who  would  thus  become  living 
sources  of  knowledge  to  them,  instead  of  being,  as  they  too 
often  are,  mere  collections  of  grammatical  puzzles.  History 
and  literature  would  both  be  the  gainers,  each  lighting  up 
the  other  and  filling  it  with  uuthought-of  meanings. 

As  to  mediaeval  history,  both  of  England  and  the  conti- 
nent, its  materials  lie  before  us  almost  complete.  The  in- 
dustry of  the  recent  awakening  has  turned  with  especial 
interest  to  this  field.  It  would  be  possible  for  any  American 
teacher  to  put  before  his  students  the  volumes  of  original 
medieval  sources  from  which  all  existing  histories  have  been 
written,  and  to  guide  them  into  independent  use  of  these 
materials  in  the  criticism  of  written  books  and  in  preparing 
dissertations  of  their  own.  In  modern  European  history, 
the  case  is  somewhat  more  difficult,  the  mass  of  material 
increasing  enormously,  and  far  surpassing  the  powers  of 
printing  to  place  it  all  before  the  reading  public.  But  here, 
too,  very  much  has  been  done.  The  chief  reports  of  am- 
bassadors, correspondence  of  princes,  pamphlets,  literature 
of  the  time,  can  be  procured,  and  its  complicated  story  be 
unravelled. 

But  the  field  which  should  prove  most  attractive  and 
remunerative  to  the  American  scholar  is  the  growth  and 
development  of  our  own  institutions.  Here  the  material, 
ponderous  as  it  is,  lies  all  within  our  grasp.  The  same 
hunting-grounds  invite  us  as  those  which  led  on  European 
scholars  of  an  earlier  day.  In  every  corner  of  America  are 
to  be  found  documents  of  every  description  bearing  upon 
the  formative  period  of  our  national  life.  Here  are  prob- 
lems not  beyond  the  strength  of  any  vigorous  student.  Be- 


HIGHER    HISTORICAL    INSTRUCTION.  57 

sides  hearing  lectures  and  reading  books,  let  such  students  as 
can  be  convinced  of  its  usefulness  be  brought  together  into  a 
practice-course  where  they  shall  be  brought  face  to  face  with 
actual  records,  and  be  called  upon  to  solve  a  few  of  the 
unsolved  problems  which  confront  the  future  historian  of 
America.  What  a  mass  of  conflicting  evidence  will  gather 
about  the  case  of  Fitz-Jolm  Porter !  The  historian  of  the 
next  generation  will  stand  appalled  before  it ;  but  it  will  be 
his  duty,  and  that  of  the  student  also,  to  analyze  the  con- 
flict of  motives  which  has  produced  this  conflict  of  evidence. 
Now  the  past  is  full  of  such  cases.  The  "  rights  "  of  scarce 
any  historical  question  are  fully  understood.  It  is  not 
enough  to  say  to  students,  Bancroft  or  Hildreth  or  Von 
Hoist  is  right  or  wrong  on  this  point.  To  impress  them 
with  the  fact,  we  must  put  into  their  hands  the  very  docu- 
ments from  which  these  authors  drew  their  argument,  and  let 
them  draw  their  own.  For  the  lecture  to  a  large  class,  the 
statement  might  be  enough,  all  that  a  majority  of  the  hearers 
might  be  able  to  assimilate,  but  there  should  be  among  them 
some  few  capable  of  being  inspired  to  more  thorough  work. 
These  few  should  be  encouraged.  They  should  become  the 
intimates  of  their  instructor.  He  should  see  in  them  the 
companions  of  his  own  researches  and  the  sure  reward  of  his 
own  industry.  They  should  see  in  him  their  leader  in  a  road 
which  is  to  take  them  up  out  of  a  boyish  way  into  a  manly 
way  of  study. 

And  what  is  more,  they  will  and  do  come  to  look  upon 
each  other,  teacher  and  scholar,  in  this  manly  way.  The 
work  of  the  teacher  is  relieved  of  its  worst  element  of  drudg- 
ery, and  the  work  of  the  student  loses  its  worst  element 
also,  —  that  of  mere  memorizing  and  repeating.  Both  enter 
together,  out  of  the  realm  of  pedagogy  into  the  world  of  let- 
ters. Nothing  impressed  M.  Fre\lericq  so  much,  both  in 


58  THE   PRACTICAL   METHOD   IN 

Germany  and  France,  as  the  free  and  familiar  footing 
upon  which  professor  and  student  met  in  the  practice- 
courses.  There  was  no  nrystery  about  it.  Both  were,  for 
the  time,  upon  the  same  level.  In  America,  the  same  result 
will  be  more  easily  attainable. 

I  can  recall  only  with  gratitude  the  inspiration  which  came 
from  the  generous  enthusiasm  of  those  young  men  who  have 
sat  with  me  about  the  green  table  in  the  Harvard  College 
library,  working  over,  with  a  pure  scholarly  spirit,  the  dusty 
record  of  the  middle  ages.  What  a  sense  of  discovery  when 
they  found  themselves  touching  the  very  thought  of  the  men 
who  lived  through  the  events  they  describe  !  What  a  triumph 
when  they  proved  this  book,  bearing  the  imposing  name  of 
some  famous  scholar  of  our  da}-,  to  be  a  tissue  of  gaps  and 
errors  !  Nor  could  a  scholar  ask  for  an}-  ampler  reward  than 
the  repeated  assurance  of  these  young  men  that  this  power  of 
independent  thought  was  the  best  fruit  of  their  student  lives. 

One  apparent  obstacle  to  success  in  America  lies  in  our 
almost  universal  system  of  grading  students,  b}'  which  all 
efforts,  after  a  true  scholarly  standard,  are  hampered,  and 
many  of  them  wholly  defeated.  It  may  well  be  imagined, 
that,  to  very  many  persons  controlling  our  higher  education, 
it  would  seem  like  dangerous  favoritism  for  a  professor  to 
surround  himself  with  picked  students  for  a  definite  purpose. 
How  shall  these  especial  students  be  rewarded  in  marks? 
How  can  we  measure  their  work  so  that  neither  they  nor 
their  fellows  shall  suffer  by  the  comparison  ?  It  would  not 
be  surprising  if  such  petty  considerations  as  these  should 
actually  prevent  the  adoption  of  the  method  I  am  suggesting. 
The  hope  is  that  the  distrust  of  all  individual  rank  in  college, 
which  has  now  become  evident  in  several  of  our  leading  insti- 
tutions, will  spread  so  widely  that  this  primal  curse  of  our 
vrhole  educational  S3-stem  will  soon  disappear. 


HIGHER   HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION.  59 

Another  obstacle,  greater  still  perhaps,  lies  in  the  deep- 
seated  dread  of  putting  pen  to  paper,  which  generally  marks 
the  American  student.  Writing  appears  to  him  oftenest  as 
a  kind  of  extra  work.  It  suggests  compositions  with  all  their 
train  of  absurdities.  It  is  to  him  a  thing  apart  from  his  or- 
dinan-  studies,  instead  of  being,  as  it  should  be,  an  instru- 
ment, the  most  useful  instrument,  in  pursuing  those  studies. 
Our  boys,  for  instance,  may  be  forced  to  study  Latin  for 
years  without  writing  one  Latin  sentence.  The  young  Ger- 
man, on  the  other  hand,  must  write  constantly,  so  that  form 
becomes  a  thing  of  nature  to  him,  and  writing  is  only  what 
it  ought  to  be,  a  means  of  education.  The  practice-course,  to 
be  successful,  must  be  reinforced  by  earl}'  training  in  similar 
kinds  of  practice,  and  by  the  presence  of  similar  exercises  in 
related  fields  of  study.  If  the  time  spent  in  what  is  called 
"English"  in  colleges  were  spent  upon  the  use  of  English 
in  the  pursuit  of  other  studies,  the  results  could  hardly  fail 
to  benefit  immensely  both  the  studies  and  the  English  itself. 
In  a  word,  the  time  must  be  hoped  for  when  in  all  the  moral 
sciences  as  well  as  in  the  physical,  practice  in  production  shall 
supplement  the  reception  of  information.  The  man  to  whom 
Harvard  College  owes  an  impulse  in  this  direction,  which  has 
never  been  lost,  used  to  say,  "If  there  is  any  one  thing  I 
despise  more  than  another,  it  is  information."  Another  man, 
who  is  now  giving  his  life  towards  stamping  upon  a  great 
American  university  this  character  of  independent,  original 
investigation,  said  to  me,  "  Our  young  men  make  a  mistake 
in  not  writing.  What  if  their  productions  are  immature? 
They  are  at  least  production,  and  their  very  immaturity  will 
be  of  service  in  pointing  the  way  to  better  things." 

What  the  laboratory  is  to  physical  science,  that  the  library 
must  be  to  moral  science.  The  library  must  become,  not  a 
store-house  of  books,  but  a  place  for  work.  Books  must 


60  HIGHER  HISTORICAL   INSTRUCTION. 

exist  not  so  much  to  be  read  as  to  be  studied,  compared, 
digested,  made  to  serve  in  the  development  of  new  truth  by 
the  method  of  practice  with  them.  One  unfamiliar  with 
student  life  would  be  surprised  at  the  unwillingness  to  use 
other  books  than  those  presented  by  their  instructors.  Num- 
bers of  students  pass  through  college  without  knowing  how 
to  consult  the  library  catalogue.  Instruction  by  means  of 
text-books,  even  with  wide  suggestion  of  collateral  reading, 
can  bring  a  student  into  relation  with  but  few  minds,  can 
give  him  almost  no  power  of  getting  out  of  books  the  mate- 
rial wanted  for  a  given  purpose.  The  practice-course  alone, 
calling  upon  a  student  to  use  dozens  of  books,  though  prob- 
ably never  to  read  one,  must  go  far  toward  giving  him  right 
ideas  about  their  value.  He  sees  how  men  before  him  have 
gone  to  work,  and  his  inevitable  loss  of  faith  in  the  infalli- 
bility of  printing  may  be  counted  as  his  greatest  gain. 

The  danger  pointed  out  in  Germany,  that  a  wholly  practi- 
cal method  must  lead  to  a  loss  in  breadth  and  vigor  of  grasp 
upon  the  whole  broad  subject  of  history,  is  one  we  are  not 
likely  to  fall  into.  Our  danger  lies  rather  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  it  is  from  this  danger  that  we  must  look  to 
the  practice-course  to  relieve  us.  M.  Fre"d6ricq  laments  the 
entire  absence  of  practice-courses  in  Belgium.  We  are  some- 
what better  off  than  that.  Johns  Hopkins  is  not  the  only 
American  university  which  has  taken  a  step  in  the  right 
direction.  In  all,  perhaps  a  half-dozen  have  done  some- 
thing already,  so  that  it  seems  not  without  reason  to  hope 
that  before  very  long  every  historical  professor  in  America 
will  consider  his  practice-course  as  much  an  essential  to  suc- 
cessful work  as  his  lecture  or  recitation. 


ON  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  POLITICAL  ECONOMY, 


BY  RICHARD  T.  ELY,  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVEKSITY. 


IT  is  easy  to  compress  into  the  compass  of  a  single  'sen- 
tence all  the  information  needed  to  qualify  any  man  of  fair 
native  ability  and  liberal  education  to  teach  political  economy 
as  it  was  taught  eight  years  ago  in  one  of  the  proudest 
institutions  in  the  United  States.  The  information  in  ques- 
tion is  this:  Buy  Mrs.  Fawcett's  "Political  Economy  for 
Beginners"  ;  see  that  your  pupils  do  the  same  ;  then  assign 
them  once  a  week  a  chapter  to  be  learned ;  finally,  question 
them  each  week  on  the  chapter  assigned  the  week  before, 
using  the  questions  found  at  the  end  of  the  chapter,  and 
not  omitting  the  puzzles  which  follow  the  more  formal  ques- 
tions ;  as  it  is  a  test  of  the  academical  learning  and  grasp  of 
economic  science  of  a  senior  to  have  a  puzzling  problem 
like  this  hurled  at  him  :  "Is  the  air  in  a  diving-bell  wealth  ; 
and,  if  so,  why?" 

Let  no  one  suppose  this  description  satirical  or  exag- 
gerated. It  is  the  literal  truth ;  and  the  hour  a  week  for  a 
part  of  a  year  of  such  instruction  was  absolutely  all  the 
teaching  of  political  economy  done  in  any  department  of  the 
rich  and  powerful  college.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  de- 
scribe the  state  in  which  the  students'  minds  were  left. 
They  learned  by  heart  a  few  truisms,  as,  e.g.,  that  it  is  a 


62  ON   METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

good  thing  to  be  honest,  diligent,  and  frugal ;  that  products 
are  divided  between  capitalists,  laborers,  and  landlords ;  and 
that  values  being  defined  as  certain  relations  of  things  to 
one  another,  there  cannot  be  a  general  rise  or  a  general  fall 
in  values  ;  and  they  acquired  an  imperfect  comprehension 
of  certain  great  fundamental  facts,  like  the  Ricardiau  theory 
of  rent  and  the  Malthusian  doctrine  of  population.  This, 
with  not  a  very  high  opinion  of  political  economy,  was  the 
sum-total  of  results  for  the  student,  and  prepared  him  for 
the  degree  of  A.B.  first,  and  afterward  for  that  of  A.M. 
In  our  national  banks  we  have  a  wonderful  and  unique 
economic  institution,  but  they  were  not  once  mentioned,  nor 
was  a  single  allusion  made  to  the  financial  history  of  this 
great  country.  And  yet  this  instruction  was  to  fit  the  elite 
of  the  youth  of  the  land  for  the  duties  of  citizenship ! 

This  is  a  true  picture  of  one  way  to  teach  political  econ- 
omy, and  it  is  a  method  of  instruction  for  which  a  high 
salary  was  paid.  Is  it  a  state  of  things  entirely  exceptional  ? 
It  is  to  be  feared  not.  A  preface  to  Amasa  Walker's 
"  Science  of  Wealth,"  edited  1872,  contains  these  words, 
which  seem  to  have  met  with  very  general  approbation : 
"Although  desirable  that  the  instructor  should  be  familiar 
with  the  subject  himself,  it  is  by  no  means  indispensable. 
With  a  well-arranged  text-book  in  the  hands  of  both  teacher 
and  pupil,  with  suitable  effort  on  the  part  of  the  former 
and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  latter,  the  study  may  be 
profitably  pursued.  We  have  known  many  instances 
where  this  has  been  done  in  colleges  and  other  institutions 
highly  to  the  satisfaction  and  advantage  of  all  parties 
concerned." 

The  writer  holds  that  better  things  than  this  are  possible, 
even  in  a  high  school ;  and  it  is  certain  that  political  econ- 
omy ought  to  be  taught  in  every  school  of  advanced  grade 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  63 

in  the  land.1  The  difficulties  are  by  no  means  insuperable. 
It  is,  in  fact,  easy  to  interest  young  people  in  economic 
discussions  which  keep  close  to  the  concrete,  and  ascend 
only  gradually  from  particulars  to  generals. 

The  writer  has  indeed  found  it  possible  to  entertain  a 
school-room  full  of  boys,  varying  in  age  from  five  to  sixteen, 
with  a  discourse  on  two  definitions  of  capital,  —  one  taken 
from  a  celebrated  writer,  and  the  other  from  an  obscure 
pamphlet  on  socialism  by  a  radical  reformer.  As  the  school 
was  in  the  country,  illustrations  were  taken  from  farm  life, 
such  as  corn-planting  and  harvesting,  and  from  the  out-door 
sports  of  the  boys,  such  as  trapping  for  rabbits.  Some 
common  familiar  fact  was  kept  constantly  in  the  foreground, 
and  thus  the  attention  of  the  youngest  lad  was  held. 

Perhaps  money  is  as  good  a  subject  as  any  for  an  opening 
lecture  to  bright  boys  and  girls,  and  the  writer  would  recom- 
mend a  course  of  procedure  somewhat  like  this :  Take  into 
the  class-room  the  different  kinds  of  money  in  use  in  the 
United  States,  both  paper  and  coin,  and  ask  questions  about 
them,  and  talk  about  them.  Show  the  class  a  greenback  and 
a  national  bank-note,  and  ask  them  to  tell  you  the  difference. 
After  they  have  all  failed,  as  they  probably  will,  ask  some 
one  to  read  what  is  engraved  on  the  notes,  after  which  the 
difference  may  be  further  elucidated.  Silver  and  gold  cer- 
tificates may  be  discussed,  and  the  distinction  made  clear 
between  the  bullion  and  face  value  of  the  five-cent  piece,  etc. 
Other  talks,  interesting  and  familiar,  about  alloys,  the  extent 
to  which  pennies  and  small  coins  are  legal  tender,  the  char- 

1  In  Belgium  it  has  been  proposed  to  introduce  political  economy  even 
into  the  elementary  schools:  and  in  view  of  the  immense  importance  of  the 
economic  problems  which  will  one  day  be  pressing  for  solution  in  the 
Tniled  States,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  such  a  proposal  at  some  future  time 
will  not  be  Utopian  in  our  country. 


64  ON   METHODS   OP   TEACHING 

acter  of  the  trade-dollar,  etc.,  etc.,  will  occupy  several  hours\ 
and  delight  the  class.1  The  origin  of  money  is  a  topic  which 
will  instruct  and  entertain  the  scholars  for  an  hour.  Various 
kinds  of  money  should  be  mentioned  ;  and  it  is  possible  you 
may  find  examples  of  curious  kinds  of  money  in  some  hill 
town  not  very  remote,  e.g. ,  eggs,  and  you  are  very  likely  to  find 
several  kinds  of  money  in  use  among  the  boys  and  girls,  e.g., 
pins.  In  one  boarding-school,  near  Baltimore,  bits  of  butter, 
served  the  boys  at  meals  in  quantities  less  than  they  desired, 
passed  as  money,  and  quite  an  extensive  use  of  bills  and 
orders,  "  negotiable  instruments,"  was  established.2  After 
this,  a  work  like  Jevons's  "  Money  and  the  Mechanism  of 
Exchange,"3  or  at  least  parts  of  it,  will  interest  the  pupils. 

Banking  very  properly  comes  under  the  head  of  political 
economy,  performing  as  it  does  most  important  functions  in 
industrial  life  ;  and  the  most  prominent  banking  institutions 
in  this  country  are  the  national  banks,  which  have  also  played 
an  important  r61e  in  our  history.  There  is  likely  to  be  one 
in  every  town  where  there  is  a  high  school,  and  it  is  well  to 
continue  the  course  of  instruction  with  the  village  national 


1  The  teacher  will  find  the  necessary  information  in  the  Revised  Stat- 
utes of  the  United  States  (Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  B.C.), 
which  should  be  in  the  school  library.     It  is  contained  in  more  convenient 
shape  in  the  "  Laws  of  the  United  States  relating  to  Loans  and  the  Cur- 
rency "  and  "  Instructions  and  Regulations  in  Relation  to  the  Transaction 
of  Business  at  the  Mints  and  Assay  Offices  of  the  United  States."    These 
pamphlets,  like  most  other  government  publications,  can  be  obtained  gratis 
of  the  congressman  of  the  district  in  which  the  school  is  situated.    They 
are  kept  on  sale  by  various  book-dealers  in  Washington. 

2  Cf.  Mr.  John  Johnston's  instructive  paper,  "Rudimentary  Society 
among  Boys,"  published  in  the  "Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in 
Historical  and  Political  Sciences,"  second  series,  No.  XI.,  edited  by  Dr. 
Herbert  B.  Adams. 

8  This  is  published  in  paper  covers  in  the  Humboldt  Library  for  forty 
cents,  as  well  as  in  the  ' '  International  Scientific  Series  "  of  D.  Appleton  &  Co 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  65 

bank.  Procure  for  this  purpose  "The  National  Bank  Act,"1 
and  study  it  with  your  class  in  connection  with  reports  and 
advertisements  and  circulars  of  the  village  bank.  You  will 
find  a  certain  minimum  number  of  directors  prescribed  by 
law  :  ascertain  the  number  in  the  bank  in  question,  and  their 
functions.  Some  members  of  the  class  will  be  acquainted 
with  them,  and  all  the  class  will  know  of  them,  and  this  will 
give  a  personal  interest  to  the  study.  Then  compare  the 
amount  of  capital  required  with  the  actual  amount,  and  have 
the  class  ascertain  from  the  law  the  amount  of  bank-notes 
which  the  bank  could  receive  from  the  comptroller  of  the 
currency,  and  the  actual  circulation.  After  the  various  feat- 
ures of  the  bank  have  been  examined,  it  is  desirable  that 
some  bright  boy  should  write  a  history  of  the  bank,  to  read 
before  the  class,  and  afterwards,  perhaps,  to  publish  in  the 
village  paper.  Files  of  the  paper,  to  which  the  editor  will 
doubtless  give  access,  will  contain  all  the  published  reports 
of  the  bank,  as  well  as  the  proceedings  and  the  village  talk 
about  the  bank  at  its  foundation.  If  officers  of  the  bank  are 
properly  approached,  they  will  assist  with  hints  and  informa- 
tion. In  this  way  the  pupils  will  acquire  a  new  interest  in 
banks  ;  and  when  they  pass  by  the  national  bank,  it  will  never 
again  seem  quite  the  same  lifeless  institution.  From  the 
history  of  one  national  bank  it  is  easy  to  pass  over  to  the 
history  of  national  banks  in  this  country,  and  to  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  State  banking  systems,  which  preceded  the 
national  banking  system.2  Then  the  student  may  be  glad 
to  read  what  General  Walker  says  on  banks,  in  his  "  Politi- 

1  A  government  publication  ;  also  published  by  the  Romans  Publishing 
Company,  251  Broadway.    Care  should  be  taken  to  secure  the  latest  edition, 
as  there  have  been  various  changes  in  the  banking  laws. 

2  For  this  purpose  the  teacher  should  consult  the  reports  of  the  comp 
troller  of  the  currency,  especially  for  the  years  1875  and  1876. 


66  ON   METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

cal  Economy,"  and  in  his  "Money,  Trade,  and  Industry,"1 
and  a  work  like  Bagehot's  "Lombard  Street"  will  not  be 
without  attractions.2 

Taxes  can  be  studied  in  the  town  or  village.  The  pupils 
can  learn  from  their  fathers  what  the  taxes  are,  how  they 
are  assessed  and  collected,  and  what  part  of  the  revenues  is 
used  for  village  purposes,  what  part  for  schools,  what  part 
for  the  county,  and  what  part  for  the  State.  In  any  vil- 
lage it  cannot  be  difficult  to  induce  one  of  the  assessors  to 
explain  before  the  class  in  political  economy  the  principles 
upon  which  he  does  his  work.  All  the  pupils  can  then  write 
essays  about  taxation  in  the  said  place,  and  perhaps  one  of 
them  will  be  able  to  write  a  financial  history  of  the  town. 
In  this  way  the  pupils  will  be  prepared  for  the  perusal  of  a 
work  like  the  "Report  on  Local  Taxation,"  prepared  by 
Messrs.  Wells,  Dodge,  and  Cuyler.3  It  may  be  learned  from 
the  reports  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 4  how  the  ex- 
penses of  the  federal  government  are  defrayed.  In  this  way 
a  complete  view  of  taxation  in  the  United  States  is  ob- 
tained,5 and  in  many  respects  a  small  town  or  village  offers 
better  facilities  for  such  a  course  than  a  large  city,  where 
manners  are  less  simple,  and  where  city  officials  for  well- 
known  reasons  often  show  a  manifest  unwillingness  to  impart 
information.  This  course  will  teach  pupils  to  observe  eco- 
nomic phenomena,  will  impart  to  them  an  interest  in  financial 
questions,  and  will  prepare  them  in  later  years  to  deal  with 
large  problems.  As  Carl  Ritter  prepared  himself  for  his 


1  Published  by  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 

2  Published  by  the  Scribners,  New  York. 

8  Published  by  Harper  &  Brothers,  New  York. 
4  Government  publications. 

6  The  United  States  Census  Reports  contain  valuable  information,  and 
every  high  school  should  be  provided  with  copies. 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  67 

great  geographical  work  by  the  study  of  the  geography  of 
Frankfort,1  so  bright  pupils,  beginning  with  the  study  of 
local  finance,  will  learn  how  to  deal  with  even  the  difficult 
problems  of  war  finance  when  they  arise. 

The  two  great  impelling  causes  of  economic  study  have 
ever  been  financial  difficulties  of  government  and  social 
problems,  or  discontent  with  the  condition  of  social  classes, 
coupled  with  a  desire  to  improve  this  unsatisfactory  condi- 
tion, and  it  is  with  these  two  kinds  of  topics  that  political 
economy  chiefly  deals.  In  a  manner  similar  in  principle 
to  that  described,  the  administration  of  public  charity  and 
its  relation  to  private  charity  may  be  studied  in  the  town 
and  county.  If  poorhouses,  insane  asylums,  hospitals,  etc., 
are  in  the  vicinity,  and  can  be  visited,  so  much  the  better. 
The  manner  of  caring  for  the  criminal  classes  may  be  studied 
locally.  Reports  of  State  boards  of  charities  will  enable 
the  pupils  to  connect  local  with  State  charities.2 

Then  there  is  the  ordinary  laborer.  Let  the  pupils  de- 
scribe his  manner  of  living,  his  wages,  etc.  If  the  school 
is  a  mixed  one,  some  young  girl  of  sufficient  tact  will  be 
found  to  visit  the  ordinary  laborers  in  their  homes,  to  talk 
with  them,  and  obtain  their  ideas.  In  some  towns  a  real 
laboring  population  can  scarcely  be  said  to  exist ;  but  factory 
towns  afford  favorable  opportunities  for  studies  of  this 
character.  Many  a  Massachusetts  factory  town  furnishes  an 
excellent  field  for  such  study,  and  the  reports  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  will  be  found  helpful. 


1  This  illustration  is  taken  from  Dr.  Adams's  paper,  v.  p.  161  of  first 
edition. 

2  Teachers  and  pupils  will  find  much  useful  information  in  the  large 
work  of  Dr.  Wines,  entitled  "The  State  of  Prisons  and  of  Child-Saving 
Institutions  in  the  Civilized  World,"  Cambridge  (Mass  ),  1880. 


68  ON  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

A  book  like  "  Work  and  Wages,"  by  Thorold  Rogers,1  will 
then  be  enjoyed  by  many  of  the  class.2 

After  part  or  all  of  this  ground  has  been  gone  over,  it  will 
then  be  time  to  take  up  the  more  systematic  study  of  politi- 
cal economy.  The  work  described  might  be  gone  over  in 
exercises  once  a  week,  extending  through  one  year,  and  the 
second  year  a  systematic  course  might  follow ;  and  this  is 
not  too  much  time  for  so  all-important  a  study  in  a  high 
school.  There  are  few  good  text-books  of  political  economy, 
but  for  the  English-speaking  student  the  writer  would  rec- 
ommend Francis  A.  Walker's  "  Political  Economy,"  or  Lave- 
leye's  "  Elements  of  Political  Economy,"  with  additions  by 
Taussig.3  Here  is  an  admirable  high-school  course  sketched 
out.  All  the  works  referred  to  ought  to  be  accessible  to  the 
teacher,  and  should  be  mastered  before  he  begins  to  teach.4 
This  may  seem  like  requiring  a  great  deal ;  but  preparation 
is  as  necessary  in  a  teacher  of  political  economy  as  in  a 
teacher  of  mathematics  ;  and  it  is  as  absurd  to  venture  to 
teach  political  economy,  without  a  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
as  to  teach  trigonometry  without  a  knowledge  of  trigonome- 
try. It  is  because  this  has  been  attempted  that  such  con- 
tempt has  been  thrown  on  the  study  of  political  economy, 
and  that  the  science  is  in  such  a  sad  condition. 

1  Published  by  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 

2  In  his  "French  and  German  Socialism''  (Harper  &  Brothers),  the 
writer  has  attempted  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  more  prominent  Utopian 
theories  in  a  manner  adapted  to  school  and  college  use.    Albert  Shaw  has 
described  admirably  an  American  communistic  society  in  his  "  Icaria:  A 
Chapter  in  the  History  of  Communism."   Published  by  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

3  If  there  is  sufficient  time,  Walker's  larger  work  is  preferable;  if  less 
time  can  be  devoted  to  the  study,  Laveleye's  is  better.    The  teacher  should 
have  both.    Laveleye's  "  Political  Economy  "  is  published  by  the  Putnams, 
New  York. 

*  Let  one  who  proposes  to  teach  political  economy  master,  first  of  all 
F.  A.  Walker's  "Political  Economy." 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  69 

For  a  more  advanced  course,  a  preliminary  training  in 
logic  is  advisable,  as  the  discussion  of  deductive  and  in- 
ductive methods,  of  conceptions  and  definitions,  etc.,  will 
otherwise  hardly  be  intelligible.1  Besides  this,  the  training 
one  obtains  in  the  study  of  logic  is  excellent  preparation  for 
much  of  the  work  required  in  political  economy.  It  teaches 
students  to  analyze  conceptions,  to  combine  elements,  and 
to  reason  closely.  The  writer  has  often  felt  that  a  want  of 
this  training  in  his  pupils  was  an  obstacle  in  his  way. 

The  more  profound  one's  knowledge  of  history  the  better 
for  teacher  in  high  school  or  college.  This  economic  life,  this 
working,  buying,  selling,  this  getting  a  living,  is  only  one  part 
of  the  historical  life  of  a  people  ;  and  the  more  that  is  known 
about  the  whole,  the  better  will  each  part  be  understood. 

For  the  advanced  investigation,  a  knowledge  of  foreign 
languages,  especially  of  German,  is  indispensable.  Roscher,- 
Wagner,3  Knies,4  Schmoller,5  Schonberg,6  and  Leroy-Beaulieu 7 
should  be  studied. 

Colleges  and  universities  ought  also  to  provide  periodicals 
like  the  "  Jahrbucher  f u'r  Nationalokonomie  und  Statistik," 
"  Jahrbuch  fur  Gesetzgebung,  Verwaltung  und  Volkswirth- 
schaft,"  the  "Tiibinger  Zeitschrift  fur  die  Gesammte  Staats- 
wissenchaft, "  the  "Journal  des  E\3onomistes,"  the  English 
"Economist,"  " Bradstreets,"  and  the  " Banker's  Magazine." 


1  The  two  little  works  by  Thomas  Fowler,  "Deductive  Logic  "  and  "  In- 
ductive Logic,"   published  in  the  Clarendon  Press  Series,   Oxford,  are 
recommended. 

2  System  der  Yolkswirthschaft. 

3  Lehrbuch  der  politischen  Oekonomie. 

4  Die  politische  Oekonomie  vom  geschichtlichen  Standbuhkte,  and  his 
"Geld  und  Credit." 

5  Ueber  einige  Grundfragen  des  Rechts  und  der  Volkswirthschaft. 

6  Handbuch  der  politischen  Oekonomie. 

7  Traite  de  la  science  des  finances. 


70  ON   METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

The  teacher  of  college  students,  who  ought  always  him- 
self to  be  an  original  worker,  should  be  perfectly  independent. 
It  is  doubtless  owing  largely  to  a  lack  of  independence  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  that  political  economy  has  not  made 
more  progress  in  this  country.  Men  are  too  often  employed 
to  teach  free  trade  or  to  teach  protection,  —  and  as  usually 
taught,  it  in  difficult  to  tell  tvhich  of  the  two  is  more  unscientific, 
—  or  to  teach  Henry  C.  Carey's  system,  or  teach  monometallism 
or  bimetallism,  whereas  the  teacher  should  be  encouraged  in 
the  pursuit  of  truth,  regardless  of  where  it  strikes. 

Independence  is  nowhere  more  necessary  than  in  the  study 
of  economies.  A  new  theory  of  the  iota  subscript  does  not 
move  the  mass  of  men  profoundly,  but  a  new  theory  of  taxa- 
tion is  bound  to  call  forth  from  some  one  the  cry  "  heresy." 
In  fact,  as  there  are  always  large  and  powerful  classes  in- 
terested in  the  present  condition  of  things,  every  change 
proposed,  no  matter  what  it  is,  is  certain  to  meet  with  a 
storm  of  opposition.  Ignorance,  prejudice,  and  selfishness 
have  always  combined  in  their  attacks  on  every  political 
economist  who  has  contributed  to  the  advance  of  his  science. 

The  political  economist  requires  likewise,  if  he  is  to  do  his 
best  work,  a  salary  which  shall  enable  him  to  mingle  with 
the  world,  to  become,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  man  of  the 
world,  in  order  that  lie  may  the  better  understand  the  world 
with  which  he  deals.  He  ought  further  to  be  able  to  travel 
and  conduct  investigations  in  industrial  regions  at  home 
and  abroad.  So  important  is  travel,  indeed,  that  one  great 
French  school,  that  of  Le  Play,  has  made  travel  the  chief 
method  of  investigation.1 

1  The  following  note  on  Le  Play  may  be  interesting  in  this  connection : 
In  1829  Le  Play  began  a  series  of  journeys,  which  continued  for  over  fifty 
years,  and  extended  themselves  into  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  even  into  the 
regions  of  Asiatic  semi-civilization.  These  travels  have  borne  plenteous 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  71 

The  thoroughly  equipped  teacher  of  political  economy 
ought,  in  addition  to  his  qualifications  in  history  and  philos- 
ophy, including  chiefly  logic,  to  be  a  careful  student  of  the 
principles  of  law.  Evidence  and  practice,  and  the  formal 
details  of  law,  are  not  of  great  importance  to  him  ;  but  real- 
estate  law,  the  law  of  contract  and  of  banking,  etc.,  are. 
The  political  economist  lays  the  basis  for  legal  study,  he 
tells  the  reason  why  such  and  such  legal  institutions,  e.g., 
private  property  in  land,  exist,  and  should  exist ;  but  he  can 
manifestly  lay  a  much  better  basis  if  he  knows  the  superstruc- 
ture which  is  to  be  erected  thereon.1 

A  legal  friend,  at  the  same  time  a  political  economist, 
recommends  the  following  course  in  law  for  advanced  stu- 
dents of  political  economy  :  "  Blackstone's  Commentaries,"2 

fruits,  of  which  the  most  prominent  are  the  following:  the  publication  of 
numerous  works,  the  establishment  of  a  method  of  study  in  social  science, 
and  the  foundation  of  a  school.  Le  Play's  method,  which  he  calls  "  La 
Mcthode  social, "'  centres  in  what  maybe  called  the  doctrine  of  travel.  The 
quintessence  of  his  theory  is,  that  it  is  as  essential  for  the  economist  to 
observe  economic  phenomena  as  for  the  mineralogist  to  observe  minerals. 
The  economist,  however,  not  being  able  to  gather  together  and  arrange  in  a 
laboratory  manufactories,  laborers'  quarters  in  cities,  agricultural  villages, 
extensive  mines,  and  the  commercial  phenomena  of  a  great  port,  must 
travel  to  them,  observe  the  manifestations  of  social  and  individual  life 
which  are  there  to  be  seen,  and  classify  the  results  thus  obtained  in  such 
manner  that  instructive  and  useful  generalization  may  be  drawn  there- 
from. The  most  important  among  the  works  of  Le  Play  bears  the  title 
"  les  Ouvriers  Europeens,"  in  which  the  author  describes  from  actual  obser- 
vation the  minutest  details  of  separate  laborers'  households  in  every  part 
of  Europe.  The  third  service  to  science,  which  these  journeys  enabled 
Le  Play  to  render,  consists  in  the  foundation  of  a  school,  called  "  L'Ecole  de 
laPaix  Sociale,''  which  manifests  its  activity  in  various  ways,  of  which  the 
most  striking  is  the  publication  of  their  semi-monthly  organ,  "  La  Re'forme 
Sociale." 

1  In  many  German  universities  every  law-student  is  obliged  to  take  a 
course  in  political  economy.    The  study  of  political  economy  is  likewise 
obligatory  in  French  law-schools. 

2  Chase's  edition  is  one  volume. 


72       ON  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 

which  should  be  thoroughly  digested ;  Parson  on  "  Con- 
tracts "  ;  Washburn  on  "  Real  Estate,"  Benjamin  on  "  Sales 
of  Personal  Property,"  and  Bispham  on  "  Equity."  I  would 
add,  at  least,  Morse  on  "  Banks  and  Banking,"  Cooley  on 
"  Taxation,"  and  Morawetz  on  "  Corporations." 

Only  one  point  more  remains  to  be  mentioned.  The  best 
original  economic  work  is,  for  the  most  part,  expensive. 
Laws,  government  reports,  as  blue-books  and  financial 
statements,  and  all  sorts  of  original  documents  are  required. 
Much  economic  work  can  be  done  only  in  connection  with  a 
learned  institution  or  a  government  office,  or  by  a  very 
wealthy  person.  Any  university  which  would  have  good 
work  on  the  part  of  its  teachers  of  political  economy  must 
not  begrudge  the  expense  of  material  as  necessary  to  the 
economist  as  chemicals  to  the  chemist.  Of  course,  it  cannot 
be  expected  that  an  American  college  will  provide  the  poli- 
tical economist  with  a  special  library  of  seventy  thousand 
volumes,  like  the  Library  of  the  Prussian  Statistical  Bureau  ; 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  fair  working  university  library 
of  political  economy  can  be  produced  for  less  than  five 
thousand  dollars.1 

1  It  will  readily  be  understood  that  a  university  library,  designed  to  aid 
original  research,  is  something  quite  different  from  a  high-school  library. 
One  hundred  dollars  would  purchase  economic  books  which  would  answei 
fairly  well  the  needs  of  a  high  school.  . 


HISTORICAL  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  COURSE  OF 

HISTORY  AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  AT 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY. 


BY  ANDREW  D.  WHITE,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY. 


THE  theory  and  practice  of  historical  instruction  in  Cor- 
nell University  may  be  outlined  as  follows :  — 

1 .  The  basis  of  historical  study  among  university  students 
is  to  be  found  in  the  necessities  of  their  general  development 
as  men,  and  of  their  special  development  as  citizens  prepar- 
ing to  take  positions  of  influence  among  the  civilizing  activi- 
ties of  their  land  and  time. 

2.  As  to  the  general  system  upon  which  a  course  extending 
through  four  years  is  conducted,  the  first  step  is  to  enable  the 
student  to  secure  some  adequate  general  knowledge  of  the 
simpler  fundamental  facts  in  that  evolution  of  man  and  of 
society  in  the  past  which  best  aids  in  solving  the  problems 
regarding  the  evolution  of  both  in  the  future.     This  is  done, 
as  regards  ancient  history,  by  a  rapid  survey  of  the  main 
ancient  nations ;    as  regards  mediaeval  history,  by  a  study 
of  the  general  transition  from  the  ancient  to  the  mediaeval 
period,  and  of  the  more  important  and  fruitful  elements, 
institutions,  and  men  developed  in  mediaeval  life  ;  as  regards 
modern  history,  by  a  study  of  the  transition  from  the  medi- 
aeval to  the  modern  period  in  leading  modern  nations,  and 


74  HISTOEY   AND   POLITICAL   SCIENCE 

especiall}'  by  attention  to  the  movements,  phases  of  thought 
and  action,  institutions,  epochs,  and  men  in  these  which 
throw  most  light  on  the  evolution  of  existing  society. 

3.  As  to  special  work,  having  in  view  the  education  of 
the  student  as  a  man  and  citizen,  there  naturally  comes  next 
the  more  careful  study  of  such  nations,  epochs,  movements, 
systems,  phases,  or  tendencies  as  bear  most  directly  on  the 
world  of  thought  and  action  in  which  the  student  is  to  live 
and  move  and  have  his  being.     These  subjects  for  special 
study  are  frequently  found  in  ancient,  mediaeval,  or  general 
modern  history,  but  students  are  especially  encouraged  to 
devote  their  most  careful  labor  to  subjects  which  have  to  do 
most  directly  with  thought  and  action  in  their  own  country. 

4.  As  to  the  practical  plan  pursued,  the  general  knowledge 
of  ancient  and  mediaeval  history,  and  of  the  history  of  Eng- 
land, —  considered  as  a  typical  example  of  a  great  modern 
state,  —  is  given  in  the  lower  classes  by  text-books,  with 
supplementary   lectures    by    the    resident    professors,    and 
occasional  courses  of  lectures  by  others.     This  elementary 
knowledge  is  afterward  developed  in  the  advanced  classes 
by  various  courses  of   lectures   upon   the   more   important 
nations  and  periods,  supplemented  by  recommendations  as 
to  the  examination  of  authorities  and  general  reading,  and 
by  "  seminary  exercises"  calculated  to  increase  the  famil- 
iarity of  students  with  important  sources,  and  to  stimulate 
their  investigation  of  these. 

5.  As  to  methods  of  teaching,  it  is  taken  for  granted  that 
the  student  must  be  directly  interested  in  his  work,  and  that 
he  is  not  to  be  considered  a  passive  recipient  of  facts  and 
ideas  flung  at  him  by  his  instructors.     Efforts  are  constantly 
made  to  trace  back  important  events  and  institutions  through 
the  various  stages  of  their  development,  and  to  make  sug- 
gestive comparisons  between  different  phases   of  progress 


AT   CORNELL   UNIVERSITY.  75 

in  the  same  nation,  and  between  similar  phases  in  different 
nations.  In  general  modern  history  and  in  American  his- 
tory, while  pains  is  taken  to  present  the  framework  and 
connections  historically,  the  filling-in  is  largely  biographi- 
cal. It  is  believed  that  history  is  thus  more  surely  made 
living  and  real,  that  the  development  of  principles  and 
events  is  more  firmly  planted  into  the  thinking  of  stu- 
dents, and  that  the  ethical  content  of  events  may  be 
grasped  as  it  can  be  in  no  other  way. 

6.  The  importance  of  leading  the  student  to  make  indi- 
vidual investigation  into  original  sources  is  fully  recognized  ; 
but  it  is  felt  that  such  special  investigations  are  likely  to  be 
narrow  and  poor,  in  fact,  to  be  simply  those  of  an  attorney's 
clerk  preparing  a  case,  unless  there  has  been  some  large  pre- 
liminary study  of  human  events,  and  some  good  philosophical 
conception  of  the  values  and  relations  of  these  ;  that  to  pro- 
mote special  investigation  among  young  men  not  matured  by 
broad  historical  studies,  and  by  thought  upon  these,  is  simply 
to   train    up   annalists   or  historical   special  pleaders.      To 
guard  against  this  danger,  it  is  thought  best  to  advise,  first, 
that  such  individual  investigations  be  made  as  a  rule  in  the 
latter  years  of  the  course  ;  and,  secondl}7,  that  they  be  made 
upon  points  of  permanent  and  direct  interest  in  the  history 
with  which   American    citizens  have  most  directly  to  do ; 
more  especially  in  the  constitutional  history  of  England,  and 
in  the  general,   political,  and  constitutional  history  of  the 
United  States. 

7.  During  the  entire  course  of  four  years  efforts  are  made 
to  keep  up  the  interest  of  the  student,  and  to  increase  his 
power  of  looking  upon  historical  events  and  developments 
from  various  points  of  view.     It  is  for  this  reason  that  such 
special  lecturers  as  Goldwin  Smith,  James  Anthony  Froude, 
Hermann   von   Hoist,    Edward   A.   Freeman,    George    W. 


76  HISTORY   AND   POLITICAL    SCIENCE. 

Greene,  Charles  Kendall  Adams,  and  others  have  at  various 
times  been  called  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  resident 
professors. 

8.  Instruction  in  political  science,  international  law,  and 
the  great  literatures,  ancient  and  modern,  is  brought  as  far  as 
possible  into  connection  with  historical  study.     As  to  litera- 
ture, courses  of  general  reading  are  suggested  which  shall 
aid   in    making   history   a   living    study,    and   not   a   mere 
"swallowing  of  formulas." 

9.  As  to  the  philosophy  of  history,  efforts  are  made  from 
the  first  to  stimulate  the  student  to  find  in  the  progress  of 
the  world's  affairs   philosophical   principles  and  underlying 
laws,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  course  a  special  series  of 
lectures  on  the  subject  is  delivered  for  the  benefit  of  those 
thus  matured  in  general  and  special  historical  work. 

JO.  To  sum  up  as  regards  the  connection  of  theory  with 
method,  the  effort  is,  first,  to  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex  by  the  survey  of  single  nations  in  ancient  history 
and  single  elements  in  mediaeval  history  before  taking  up 
with  more  minuteness  the  complicated  history  of  the  modern 
world ;  and,  in  modern  history,  to  study  nations  and  even 
individuals  separately  before  grouping  all  together  ;  secondly, 
to  proceed  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract  by  a  large  use 
of  the  biographical  method  before  presenting  extended 
chains  of  historical  events  ;  and,  thirdly,  to  proceed  from  the 
empirical  to  the  rational  by  encouraging  students  to  draw 
philosophical  principles  out  of  events  before  any  connected 
discussion  upon  the  philosophy  of  history  is  given  as  a  whole. 


ADVICE  TO  AN  INEXPERIENCED  TEACHER  OF 
HISTORY. 


BY  W.  C.  COLLAR,  A.M.,  HEAD  MASTER  OF  ROXBUBT  LATIN  SCHOOL 


'XT'OU  contemplate  your  task  with  a  kind  of  despairing 
-L  shudder,  and  it  is  not  strange.  If  we  except  the  in- 
structors in  a  relatively  small  number  of  city  high  schools, 
the  American  teacher  who  is  a  college  graduate  is  supposed 
to  be  equipped  for  instructing  in  most  branches  of  human 
knowledge,  or,  to  speak  guardedly,  at  least  in  languages, 
ancient  and  modern,  physical  and  natural  science,  mathe- 
matics, history,  and  English  literature. 

Historj7  has  been  with  you  a  favorite  pastime  rather  than 
a  subject  of  severe,  absorbing,  protracted  study.  You  have 
read  a  good  number  of  standard  histories  of  ancient  and  mod- 
ern times  without  attempting  to  make  a  careful  and  minute 
study  of  any  one  nation  or  period,  and  this  you  rightly  feel 
is  a  very  slender  preparation  for  the  weighty  responsibilities 
that  you  are  now  to  assume.  For  you  have  not  to  teach  a 
definite  portion  of  a  well-defined  subject  in  accordance  with 
tried  and  accepted  methods,  or  even  under  the  guidance  of 
certain  established  principles  of  historical  instruction.  The 
teaching  of  history  has  hardly  yet  reached  the  scientific  stage. 
Both  the  What  and  the  How  are  to  be  largely  of  your  own 
invention.  The  subject  itself  is  vast.  It  opens  in  many 
and  far-reaching  vistas  that  lose  themselves  in  a  tortuous 
complexity.  Where  is  a  clue  to  be  found?  Evidently  time, 
reading,  observation  $  experiment,  reflection,  judgment  will 
all  be  needed. 


78  ADVICE   TO   AN   INEXPERIENCED 

Then  what  of  the  class  of  minds  to  be  taught?  For  in- 
struction must  be  adapted  to  the  condition  and  needs  of 
your  pupils,  or  it  will  count  for  little.  It  is  said  that  "  the 
German  pupil  at  the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  has  been  able 
to  complete  two  distinct  surveys  of  universal  history."  It 
will  not  be  safe  to  assume  any  such  amount  of  knowledge 
and  training  in  the  case  of  high-school  scholars  of  that  age 
with  us.  Their  acquaintance  with  history  is  most  likely 
limited  to  a  meagre  outline  of  facts  in  English  history,  and 
such  a  knowledge  of  United  States'  history  as  may  be  got 
from  the  study  of  a  manual  like  Anderson's  or  Berard's. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  imagination  has  not 
probably  been  cultivated  by  their  contact  with  history,  still 
less  have  they  any  developed  historical  sense,  any  notion 
of  the  continuity  of  history,  and  most  likely  no  love  whatever 
of  historical  reading.  It  is  fortunate  if  they  do  not  think  of 
history  as  a  mere  collection  of  dry  facts,  without  interest  or 
significance, — a  dreary,  barren  study,  to  be  cast  aside  and 
done  with  as  soon  as  possible.  How  often  does  one  hear  from 
children  the  exclamation,  "  Oh  !  I  hate  history  !  "  Or  from 
grown  persons,  "  I  never  could  get  interested  in  history." 

Finally,  account  must  be  taken  of  the  school  time  allotted 
to  history.  This  reveals  perhaps  the  most  discouraging 
feature  of  all.  I  have  found  three  hours  a  week  for  a  year 
too  little  time  for  Greek  and  Roman  history  alone ;  but  that, 
I  am  sure,  would  seem  in  most  high  schools  a  liberal,  if  not 
excessive,  allowance  of  time  for  a  much  wider  range.  The 
statement  made  in  another  essay  in  this  volume,  that 
"In  America,  history  is  generally  crowded  into  one  or  two 
terms,  or  at  most  into  a  single  year,"  is  probably  within  the 
mark. 

Such,  then,  are  some  of  the  conditions  under  which  you 
must  work.  A  consciousness  of  inadequate  preparation, 


TEACHER   OF    HISTORY.  £ 

insufficient  time,  and  pupils  without  historical  training.  The 
situation  is  not  exhilarating ;  but  neither  is  it  without  hope;. 
Certainly  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  first  to  appreciate 
clearly  under  what  limitations  one  must  work,  and  then  to 
conceive  definitely  the  kind  and  amount  of  work  to  be  done. 
To  supply  your  own  lack  of  knowledge  and  training  will  be 
the  slow  task  of  years  ;  but  nothing  is  so  satisfying  and 
stimulating  as  the  consciousness  of  progress.  This  is  the 
one  of  the  conditions  enumerated  that  it  lies  in  your  own 
power  to  change,  and  you  may  be  sure  that  on  the  increasing 
depth  and  fulness  and  freshness  of  your  own  knowledge  will 
depend  in  large  measure  the  interest  and  progress  of  your 
pupils,  that  is,  the  power  and  success  of  your  instruction,  and 
accordingly  your  own  satisfaction  in  your  work. 

Let  us  suppose  the  subject  of  ancient  history  is  assigned 
to  you.  The  field  is  immense,  and  the  time  is  absurdly  in- 
adequate. But  it  is  only  the  Hebrews,  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Romans,  whose  history  and  literatures  are  of  great  interest 
and  importance  to  us ;  and  many  as  are  the  points  of  con- 
tact of  these  nations  with  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Assyria,  Persia, 
and  a  few  other  oriental  peoples,  some  incidental  notice  only 
of  these  relations  will  suffice.  Thus,  the  area  is  at  once  greatly 
circumscribed.  And  even  Hebrew  history  must  not  be  per- 
mitted to  occupy  a  relatively  large  place  ;  partly  because  a 
considerable  portion  of  it  is  not  important ;  partly  because 
what  is  of  the  greatest  value  to  us  requires,  for  its  compre- 
hension and  appreciation,  a  degree  of  mental  training  and 
maturity.  The  Hebrews  have  transmitted  to  us  their  con- 
ceptions of  God,  of  religion,  and  of  moralhy.  Their  thoughts, 
beliefs,  aspirations,  emotions,  have  entered  into  our  inmost 
being,  and  constantly  affect  our  outward  life  and  conduct. 
Their  ecstasy  of  joy,  of  triumph,  of  hope  ;  their  passion  of 
remorse,  of  sorrow,  of  despair,  have  been  embalmed  in  our 


80  ADVICE  TO  AN  INEXPERIENCED 

sacred  music,  and  hallowed  by  the  most  tender  and  solemn 
associations  of  religion.  Their  language  and  their  imag- 
ery have  permeated  our  literature  and  color  our  daily  speech. 
But  it  would  be  vain  to  attempt  to  show  a  class  of  begin- 
ners the  immensity  of  the  influence  for  good,  and  likewise 
for  evil,  that  has  been  wrought  upon  us  through  the  ages,  by 
the  faith,  the  ethics,  the  laws,  the  literature  of  that  strange 
people.  Of  these  things,  a  partial,  fragmentary,  or  even 
incidental  treatment  must  suffice. 

But  to  be  more  precise.  As  a  basis  for  such  instruction, 
as  circumstances  allow,  it  is  enough  to  read  with  a  class, 
first,  the  life  and  work  of  Moses,  contained  in  the  first  twenty- 
four  chapters  of  Exodus,  and  the  first  three  and  the  thirty- 
fourth  chapters  of  Deuteronomy ;  second,  the  first  eleven 
chapters  of  Joshua ;  and,  finally,  the  life  of  David. 

It  is  necessary  to  assume  some  familiarity  with  Bible 
stories ;  though  how  so  many  intelligent  boys  and  girls, 
accustomed  to  attendance  at  Sunday-schools,  grow  up  with- 
out such  familiar  knowledge  is  something  of  a  mystery.  The 
discover}',  some  years  ago,  that  in  a  class  of  thirty  bright 
boys  of  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  only  three  understood 
an  allusion  to  the  story  of  Ruth  and  Boaz,  led  to  my  laying 
out  a  course  of  Bible  reading  in  my  own  school  for  each  year 
of  a  six  years'  curriculum. 

Thus  far,  we  have  considered  the  nature  and  scope  of  your 
work,  and  have  pointed  out  some  of  the  limitations  imposed 
by  circumstances  for  which  you  are  not  responsible,  but  which 
you  must  not  disregard.  It  is  time  to  speak  of  the  method 
of  teaching.  But  the  method  must  be  determined  in  the 
main  by  the  object  aimed  at.  If  the  object  is  to  deposit 
in  the  mind  the  greatest  number  possible  of  historical  facts, 
there  is  perhaps  no  better  way  than  to  confine  the  instruc- 
tion to  drill  upon  the  contents  of  a  mar.aal  by  question  and 


TEACHER    OF    HISTORY.  81 

answer,  with  frequent  examinations  in  writing.  Such  a  method 
would  probably  be  effective  in  two  ways  :  it  would  give  learners 
positive  knowledge,  or  the  semblance  of  it,  and  it  would  pretty 
certainly  make  them  hate  history.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say 
that  the  ultimate  purpose  of  school  instruction  should  be  to 
incite  an  interest  in  history,  and  to  create  a  love  for  historical 
reading.  If  this  is  a  correct  view,  it  gives  the  key  to  right 
methods  ;  and,  from  other  essays  in  this  volume,  you  will 
gather  many  useful  suggestions.  Only  consider  well  what 
hints  you  can  use.  Remember  that  your  task  is  not  that  of 
a  college  professor.  It  is  very  different,  and  it  is  much  more 
difficult.  Therefore,  many  excellent  methods  described  by 
eminent  teachers  of  history  in  the  preceding  essays  you  may 
be  unable  to  put  in  practice.  You  have  to  deal  with  minds 
less  mature  and  less  capable  of  independent  study  ;  and  you 
cannot  probably  send*  your  pupils  to  a  well-furnished  library 
for  reading  and  research.  Perhaps  what  is  contained  in  this 
volume,  in  answer  to  the  question  "How  shall  history  be 
taught?  "  is  most  directly  helpful.  Let  me  try  to  add  some 
suggestions  derived  from  my  own  experience. 

I  will  suppose  that  your  pupils  have  some  brief  manual  of 
Roman  or  Greek  history,  like  ' '  Creighton's  Primer  of  Roman 
History,"  or  "  Smith's  Smaller  History  of  Greece."  First  read 
over  the  lesson  assigned  for  the  next  day,  or  portions  of  it,  with 
the  class ;  indicate  briefly  what  is  of  greater  and  what  of  less 
importance ;  make  such  explanations  as  are  needful  for  an 
intelligent  comprehension  of  the  text,  and  indicate  what 
dates  should  be  committed  to  memory. 

A  word  may  be  here  most  conveniently  said  on  the  sub- 
ject of  chronolog}'.  A  few  dates  should  be  well  fixed  in  the 
memory ;  they  should  be  carefully  selected  by  the  teacher, 
and  some  explanation  given  of  their  significance.  But  "  a 
few,"  you  will  say,  is  a  little  indefinite.  Of  course,  opinions 


82  ADVICE  TO   AN   INEXPERIENCED 

will  differ  as  to  the  number  of  indispensable  dates  in  any 
history,  though  there  might  be  a  general  assent  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  requiring  the  pupil  to  commit  as  few  as  possible. 
Of  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  dates  given  in  "  Smith's  Smaller 
History  of  Greece,"  I  insist  on  fifteen,  and  I  think  the 
number  might  be  reduced  to  ten.  But  if  learners  are  prop- 
erly taught,  they  will,  of  course,  be  able  to  determine  a  great 
many  dates  approximately.  For  example,  a  boy  who  has 
clearly  understood  the  cause,  purpose,  and  results  of  the 
Confederacy  of  Delos  could  not  possibly  place  it  in  time  far 
wrong,  with  reference  to  great  events  before  and  after  it ; 
and  a  single  important  date  in  the  century  well  remembered 
would  enable  him  to  fix  very  nearly  its  absolute  time. 

Remembering  that  you  must  make  history  interesting,  to 
that  end  use  all  available  means  to  produce  vivid  impressions. 
This  is  a  trite  remark,  but  it  will  bear  repeating.  Casts, 
models,  coins,  photographs,  relief  maps,  may  not  be  at  your 
command  ;  but  maps  of  some  sort  you  must  have.  Historical 
instruction,  without  the  constant  accompaniment  of  geography, 
has  no  solid  foundation,  —  "is  all  in  the  air."  The  imagination 
must  be  stirred  ;  the  sympathies  must  be  quickened.  How  ? 
I  answer,  first,  by  drawing  with  judgment  from  your  own  stores 
of  knowledge.  An  interesting,  but  perhaps  not  historically 
important,  incident  is  merely  alluded  to,  or  not  mentioned  at 
all  in  the  manual  used  by  the  class.  Tell  the  story  in  all 
its  details.  You  might  read  it  in  a  form  more  perfect  from 
a  literary  point  of  view,  but  you  ought  to  be  able  to  tell  it 
in  a  way  far  more  impressive,  and  that  is  the  main  thing. 
For  events  of  a  different  class,  I  should,  following  sugges- 
tions more  than  once  made  in  this  volume,  read  from  original, 
and,  if  possible,  from  contemporary  records.  What  a  vivid 
idea,  for  instance,  will  be  got  of  the  plague  at  Athens  from 
the  reading  of  a  few  pages  from  "Thucydides,"  with  a  word 


TEACHER   OF    HISTORY.  83 

or  two  added  from  modern  medical  studies  of  that  scourge. 
The  opportunity  and  the  advantage  of  studying  history  from 
original  documents  is  one  strong  reason  why  I  have  advised 
the  study  of  a  small  portion  of  Hebrew  history,  though  I  am 
not  ignorant  what  modern  criticism  has  established  regarding 
the  age  and  authorship  of  those  writings.  It  is  not  necessary, 
however,  to  communicate  to  a  class  knowledge  for  which  they 
are  not  prepared. 

But  for  awakening  the  sympathies  and  moving  the  imagi- 
nation of  children,  I  attach  greater  importance  to  the  aid  to 
be  derived  from  imaginative  literature,  particularly  poetry. 
Poetry  gives  life  and  reality  to  history.  History  describes, 
poetry  paints ;  and  this  is  often  true  of  poetry  that  ranks 
neither  in  the  first  nor  in  the  second  order.  For  years  I 
have  found  it  very  useful  to  have  Macaulay's  "  Lays  of 
Ancient  Rome  "  read  in  connection  with  the  mythical  part 
of  Roman  Histor}-.  There  is  nothing  like  the  magic  charm, 
whether  of  sublimity  or  pathos,  that  poetry  lends  to  historical 
events,  persons,  and  places.  Who  can  read  Milman's  mag- 
nificent ode  on  the  Israelites  crossing  the  Red  Sea  without 
a  consciousness,  if  he  reflects  upon  it,  of  a  fresh  and  more 
vivid  realization  of  a  scene  familiar  to  his  imagination  from 
childhood?  How  Scott's  beautiful  hymn,  sung  by  Rebecca 
in  "  Ivanhoe,"  makes  us  see,  as  the  Scripture  narrative  never 
did,  the  slow  onward  toiling  of  the  Israelites  through  the 
rocky  fastnesses  and  over  the  sandy  deserts  of  Arabia,  guided 
by  the  pillar  of  cloud  by  day  and  the  pillar  of  fire  by  night ! 

At  the  distance  of  forty  years  I  recall  the  emotion,  the 
tears,  with  which  I  read  in  our  country  school  reading-book 
a  poem  which  I  have  never  since  seen,  entitled  "  Jugurtha  in 
Prison,"  beginning, 

"  Well,  is  the  rack  prepared,  the  pincers  heated  ?" 


84  ADVICE  TO  AN  INEXPERIENCED 

I  knew  nothing  of  Jugurtha,  neither  when  he  lived  nor  in 
what  part  of  the  world,  nor  what  he  had  done  that  he  was  to 
he  starved  to  death  in  prison.  It  is  true,  in  this  particular 
case,  that  if  I  had  known  what  a  scamp  Jugurtha  was,  my 
sympathies  for  him  would  have  been  considerably  less 
ardent ;  but  in  that  case  they  would  only  have  been  transferred 
to  his  brothers,  whom  he  had  so  foully  murdered. 

With  what  a  swell  of  patriotic  pride,  too,  did  I  use  as  a 
boy  to  recite,  — 

"Departed  spirits  of  the  mighty  dead, 
Ye  that  at  Marathon  and  Leuctra  bled." 

"Marathon  and  Leuctra"  signified  nothing  to  me.  I  had  not 
the  remotest  idea  who  the  "mighty  dead"  were  who  had 
fallen  there,  but  I  felt  as  if  it  would  have  been  a  joy  to  have 
shed  my  blood  with  them. 

Do  not  make  the  mistake,  which  I  am  afraid  is  a  common 
one,  of  teaching  the  history  of  one  ancient  nation  as  if  it 
had  no  relation  to  that  of  any  other.  To  point  out  relations, 
to  contrast  and  compare  times,  institutions,  events,  men,  is 
one  of  the  most  delightful  and  most  useful  parts  of  the 
teacher's  work.  To  encourage  pupils  to  discover  likenesses 
and  differences  is  to  promote  thinking,  to  enlarge  the  mental 
horizon,  to  induce  a  habit  of  mind  of  inestimable  value. 
Take,  for  example,  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  Hebrews, 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans ;  their  constitutions,  which 
embodied  and  expressed  their  most  striking  and  distinctive 
national  characteristics.  It  would  be  easy  to  show,  how  on 
the  one  hand  the  Mosaic  constitution,  the  Decalogue,  aimed 
to  make  men  moral  and  religious ;  while  on  the  other  the  Greek 
and  Roman  constitutions  sought  to  form  men  into  soldiers,  and 
to  make  them  into  members  of  a  body  politic.  Hence  the 
importance  of  private  conduct  under  the  one,  and  its  relative 
unimportance  under  the  other,  with  all  the  far-reaching 


TEACHER    OF    HISTORY.  85 

consequences  that  followed.  In  the  study  of  Greek  history 
a  comparison  of  the  two  rival  states,  Athens  and  Sparta,  in 
spirit  and  policy,  and  the  tracing  of  the  immediate  and 
remote  effects  on  themselves  and  all  Hellas,  will  not  only 
impart  increased  interest,  by  bringing  into  clearer  relief  the 
essential  characteristics,  the  heroism,  the  selfishness,  the 
hardihood,  the  cruelty,  the  narrowness  of  the  one,  and  the 
intelligence,  love  of  knowledge  and  beauty,  but  also,  alas ! 
the  sensualit}',  levity,  and  weakness  of  the  other  ;  but  it  will 
suggest  many  an  important  lesson,  and  will  be  an  excellent 
preparation  for  the  reading  of  modern  history  with  a  more 
intelligent  observation  and  reflection. 

Again,  how  interesting  is  the  comparison  in  detail  of  the 
growth  of  the  Athenian  constitution  under  Solon,  Cleisthenes, 
and  Pericles,  with  that  slowly  evolved  among  the  Romans 
after  the  beginning  made  by  Servius  Tullus,  by  the  struggle 
for  two  centuries  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians. 
There  is  the  same  exclusive  possession  of  political  rights  on 
the  part  of  the  nobles,  and  accordingly  the  same  control  of 
government  by  the  few  for  their  own  benefit  and  pleasure ; 
the  same  misery,  poverty,  and  indebtedness  of  the  lower 
classes ;  the  same  struggle  to  escape  from  intolerable 
burdens,  and  then  to  share  equally  with  the  more  fortunate 
the  rights  of  citizenship,  that  meant  so  much  in  ancient 
times ;  the  same  shifting  of  the  basis  and  condition  of 
political  privileges  from  birth  to  wealth,  estimated,  observe, 
in  both  cases,  by  the  amount  or  income  of  property  in  land  ; 
and  finally  the  same  issue,  the  turning  of  the  tables,  the 
ultimate  predominance  of  the  people,  and  the  transference  of 
the  sceptre  of  power  from  the  noble  by  birth  to  the  rich. 
And  can  there  be  a  more  interesting  lesson  in  histor}*  than 
to  continue  this  analogy,  and  trace  the  upward  struggle  of 
the  common  people  in  England?  There  the  same  contest 


86  ADVICE   TO   AN    INEXPERIENCED 

has  been  going  on  for  six  hundred  years  ;  the  same  forces 
are  at  work,  and  there  are  man}'  signs  that  the  same  results 
will  follow. 

I  have  anticipated  in  the  last  few  sentences  the  only 
additional  suggestion  that  I  can  now  permit  myself  to  make. 
I  mean  the  comparison  of  ancient  with  modern  history. 
According  to  Herbert  Spencer,  there  is  no  thinking  without 
a  consciousness  of  similitude,  and  no  knowing  without  a 
perception  of  relation,  difference,  and  likeness.  If,  then, 
comparison,  conscious  or  unconscious,  is  a  necessary  con- 
dition of  knowledge,  is  one  in  danger  of  pressing  the  com- 
parative method  of  historical  study  too  far?  Explicit 
comparisons  at  every  step  are  not  necessary,  and  the  strict 
limitations  of  time  must  not  be  forgotten.  I  have  never 
failed  to  awaken  interest  by  such  comparisons,  whether  in  the 
study  of  ancient  or  modern  history,  even  when  the  basis  of 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  pupils  was  of  the  slenderest.  But  a 
striking  parallelism  pointed  out  here  and  there  will  be  enough 
to  give  direction  to  the  thoughts  in  reading  history,  to  lead 
pupils,  as  has  alread}T  been  observed,  to  see  and  follow  out 
analogies  themselves,  to  bring  home  to  the  consciousness 
what  is  far  away,  and  to  recognize  in  what  appears  new  and 
strange  what  is  known  or  even  familiar.  Let  me  illustrate. 

Suppose  the  topic  for  a  lesson  has  been  the  Sicilian  Expedi- 
tion. There  is  hardly  to  be  found  a  more  thrilling  narrative 
than  that  by  the  great  Greek  historian,  and  the  reading  of 
some  pages  from  Thucydides  may  well  occupy  a  half-hour. 
A  class  will  hardly  find  in  their  course  in  ancient  history  so 
conspicuous  an  example  of  the  utter  disastrous  failure  of  an 
important  undertaking  through  the  irresolution  and  incapa- 
city of  a  leader.  Let  the  teacher  now  tell  the  story  of  the 
Peninsula  Campaign  of  McClellan  in  our  late  Rebellion,  to 
illustrate  how  history  is  repeated  in  events  and  in  the 


TEACHER   OF   HISTORY.  87 

characters  of  men.  Nicias  was  a  man  of  upright  character 
and  respectable  talents,  but  as  a  general  cautious  to  timidity,, 
and  in  a  pinch  incapable  of  coming  to  a  decision.  He  was 
one  of  those  men  who  are  always  thought  to  be  sure  to  do 
great  things,  without  its  being  possible  to  tell  what  inspires 
such  confidence.  He  had  the  resources  of  the  state  at  his 
back,  and  to  support  him  the  unflinching  determination  of 
his  countrymen  to  win.  He  was  ably  seconded  by  his 
subordinates,  and  he  almost  achieved  a  great  success.  But 
at  the  last  moment  victory  slipped  from  his  grasp,  and  the 
hopeless  ruin  of  all  his  plans  quickly  followed.  Such,  at 
least  in  the  opinion  of  many,  was  McClellan,  and  so  ended 
disastrousl}'  his  strategy  of  the  spade.  As  the  elder  Nicias 
barely  missed  capturing  Syracuse,  so  did  the  modern  Nicias 
all  but  take  Richmond. 

Again,  at  first,  a  boy  or  girl  would  not  see  much  likeness 
in  the  characters  of  the  Romans  and  the  English.  But  reflec- 
tion, aided  by  the  hints  and  questions  of  the  teacher,  would 
bring  out  a  surprising  number  of  points  of  resemblance,  and 
it  would  appear  that  the  English  might  be  fairly  called  the 
Romans  of  the  modern  world.  There  is  at  bottom  the  same 
solidity,  massiveness,  and  sobriety  of  nature.  The  same 
indomitable  will  and  tenacity  of  purpose  is  characteristic  of 
the  two  peoples.  They  are  alike  in  their  respect  for  woman, 
their  domesticity,  their  love  of  old-fashioned  ways  and 
things,  their  arrogance,  their  dislike  of  foreigners.  They 
have  above  all  other  nations  a  genius  for  law  and  govern- 
ment. 

Tu  regere  imperio  popolos,  Romane,  memento, 
Hae  tibi  erunt  artes;  pacisque  imponere  morem, 
Parcere  subjectis,  et  debellare  superbos. 

In  many  ways  their  defects  and  limitations  are  the  same. 
The  brusqueness,  harshness,  and  indifference  to  the  rights 


88          TO  AN  INEXPERIENCED  TEACHER  OF  HISTORY. 

and  feelings  of  others  which  foreigners  complain  of  in  the 
English,  seem  to  have  been  traits  of  the  Romans.  Cato, 
a  typical  Roman,  was  willing  that  the  prayer  of  the  Achaean 
exiles  should  be  granted  that  they  might  return  to  their  own 
country  after  having  languished  seventeen  years  in  prison, 
but  he  gave  his  consent  in  these  gracious  words  :  "  Have  we 
nothing  better  to  do  than  to  sit  here  all  day  long  debating 
whether  a  parcel  of  worn-out  Greeks  shall  be  carried  to  their 
graves  here  or  in  Achaia  ? "  Both  are  incapable  of  the 
highest  excellence  in  certain  forms  of  art.  Matthew  Arnold 
is  fond  of  repeating  of  a  large  part  of  his  countrymen,  that 
they  are  characterized  by  "a  defective  type  of  religion,  a 
narrow  range  of  intellect  and  knowledge,  a  stunted  sense 
of  beauty,  a  low  standard  of  manners."  This  seems  to  be 
equally  true  of  the  Roman  Philistine,  and,  I  imagine,  true 
of  a  far  larger  part  of  the  whole  body  of  the  Romans  than  of 
the  English. 

Our  aim  has  been  to  show  how  to  give  life  and  reality  to 
history,  and  we  have  seen  that  the  methods  by  which  this 
end  may  be  reached  are  also  those  by  which  the  greatest 
benefits  are  to  be  derived  from  historical  study  ;  I  mean  the 
culture  of  the  imagination,  the  quickening  of  the  sympathies, 
the  elevation  of  the  moral  nature,  the  forming  of  mental 
habits  of  observation,  comparison,  and  reflection,  and  finally 
an  increased  interest  in  history  and  general  literature. 


A  PLEA  FOR  ABCHJIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION. 


BY  JOSEPH  THACHER  CLARKE. 


11  Die  Werkstdtte  eines  grossen  Kunstlers  entwickelt  den 
keimenden  Philosophien,  den  keimenden  Dic/iter,  mehr  als  der 
Horsaal  des  Weltweisen  und  des  Kritikers" — Letter  of 
Goethe  to  Oeser,  1768. 

IT  has  long  been  evident  that,  as  matters  now  stand,  a 
living  interest  in  classical  antiquity  is  difficult  to  in- 
troduce in  the  studies  of  youth,  and  almost  impossible  to 
maintain  in  the  busy  life  of  later  years.  To  some  men  of 
acknowledged  intelligence  it  appears  inadvisable  to  devote 
even  that  attention  to  classical  attainment  hitherto  customary 
in  our  educational  systems.  Such  complaints  that  the  study 
of  the  ancient  languages  is  not  productive  of  adequate  results 
are  not  new,  and  unfortunately  are  not  without  foundation. 

Teachers  of  long  experience  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge tell  us  "it  is  quite  usual  to  find  among  advanced 
classical  students  so  complete  an  absence  of  the  feeling  of 
the  reality  of  ancient  life  that  they  will  sometimes  in  constru- 
ing put  into  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  characters  of  history  or 
fiction  a  sentiment  in  ludicrous  disaccord  with  his  position  and 
with  what  might  have  been  expected,  and  will  do  so  without 
the  slightest  sense  of  incongruity."  If  the  case  elsewhere 
is  otherwise,  it  certainly  is  not  more  favorable  than  with  so 
great  and  so  typical  an  institution. 


90  A  PLEA  FOR 

This  absence  of  the  feeling  of  reality,  this  want  of  acquaint- 
ance with  the  actual  circumstances  of  the  life  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  touches  the  secret  of  the  entire  matter.  We 
must  admit  that,  in  this  regard,  there  is  indeed  the  need  of 
improvement,  almost  of  a  revolution,  in  the  presentation  of 
the  classics  to  the  student  and  to  the  public  if  these  branches 
are  to  hold  their  own  against  the  pressure  brought  to  bear 
upon  them  by  the  absorbing  utilitarianism  of  our  age. 
Such  an  improvement  can  only  proceed  from  a  rejuvenation 
of  philological  studies  by  that  living  knowledge  of  antiquity 
gained  by  practical  archaeology.  A  means  of  adapting  class- 
ical instruction  to  the  needs  and  tastes  of  present  generations 
has  long  been  sought,  and  has  gradually  become  more  and 
more  needful.  An  increase  of  the  direct  study  of  ancient 
life,  which  unites  the  advantages  of  philological  scholarship 
and  the  exact  research  of  natural  science,  is  the  only  satisfac- 
tory resort  in  the  present  emergency.  Archaeology  is  that 
combination  of  tangible  acquisition  with  intellectual  attain- 
ment which  is  the  ideal  compromise  between  the  conflicting 
principles.  Not  long  ago  a  prominent  statesman  spoke  of 
archaeology  as  a  "great  and  healthgiving "  science.  In  this 
application  it  may  truly  bear  out  his  curious  characterization. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  demonstrate  that  the  real  disease  of 
modern  classical  instruction, — notably  in  our  own  country, 
which  is  entirely  without  archaeological  study,  —  is  this  very 
want  of  the  sense  of  reality,  resulting  from  the  omission  of 
what  Boeckh  has  termed  the  material  discipline  of  the  science 
of  antiquity.  The  history  of  classical  learning,  during  the  last 
four  centimes,  shows  clearly  that,  without  frequent  and  sys- 
tematic research  among  the  material  remains  of  earlier  life, 
the  real  intercourse  of  modern  generations  with  antiquity 
steadily  declines.  The  want  of  archaeological  investigations 
during  the  ages  succeeding  the  first  great  impulse  of  the 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL   INSTRUCTION.  91 

Renaissance,  and  of  that  intelligent  understanding  only  to  be 
derived  from  discoveries  thus  made,  resulted  in  the  stagnation 
and  pedantic  lifelessness  of  all  classic  learning  which  is  so 
characteristic  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
The  promising  beginning  of  antique  research  made  in  the 
Quatrocento,  by  Italian  architects  and  travellers,  —  Brunel- 
leschi,  Bracciolini,  Squarcione,  and  particular!}'  Cyriacus 
of  Ancona,  —  did  not  meet  with  encouragement  sufficient  to 
insure  the  position  of  archaeological  investigations  during  the 
following  ages.  Even  as  late  as  the  time  of  Milliu,  scholars 
did  not  generally  recognize  the  fact  that  the  study  of  ancient 
monuments  of  art  is  the  study  of  one  of  the  chief  expressions 
of  human  genius  and  attainment ;  did  not  perceive  that  a 
knowledge  of  the  monuments  alone  could  lift  the  veil  by 
which  the  earlier  civilizations  were  shrouded. 

This  inability  to  recognize  and  enter  into  the  actual  life 
of  the  ancients  led  to  the  appearance  of  that  great  and 
yet  deplorable  race  of  scholars  who,  Cyclop-like,  lacked 
the  eye  of  practical  acquaintance  with  the  material  remains 
of  those  civilizations  to  whose  literary  vestiges  they  devoted 
an  erudition  not  since  surpassed.  Philologists  and  phil- 
osophers stretched  and  contracted  the  few  facts  of  antique 
civilization  known  to  them  until  they  fitted  as  best  they 
might  the  Procrustean  beds  of  their  preconceived  theories. 
In  all  branches  of  intellectual  attainment  there  was  a  lack 
of  practical  knowledge  which  it  is  difficult  to  comprehend. 
Erasmus,  besides  his  mother  tongue,  could  only  speak  Latin, 
and  did  not  even  understand  the  languages  of  France,  Italy, 
or  England,  although  he  had  lived  long  in  those  countries. 
Duval,  at  the  court  of  Francis  I.  of  Austria,  could  repeat  the 
names  and  alleged  dates  of  all  the  rulers  of  Egypt,  Greece, 
and  Rome,  but  could  not  tell  how  many  Imperial  Electors 
were  living,  and  did  not  even  know  the  beautiful  sisters  of 


92  A   PLEA   FOB 

the  Emperor  Joseph,  —  who  himself  excused  the  scholar  with 
the  explanation:  "But  then  my  sisters  are  not  antiques." 
Perhaps  the  greatest  corypheus  of  this  school  of  pedants 
was,  however,  one  Hermann  Conring,  who  wrote  something 
over  two  hundred  "opera"  and  "  opuscula,"  and  whose 
epitaph  in  the  little  churchyard  of  Helmstadt,  after  enumerat- 
ing his  many  attainments  and  more  titles,  concludes  :  "  mul- 
tus  putes  conditos?  Unus  est,  Conringius,  Saeculi  Miracu- 
lum  !  "  But  who  to-day  gives  a  thought  to  this  Wonder  of  his 
Centur}',  with  all  his  learning? 

The  study  of  the  classics  with  these  men  of  the  schools, 
even  more  than  with  our  own,  was  dominated  by  a  purely 
philological  and  literary  spirit,  to  the  exclusion  of  practical, 
that  is  to  say  of  archaeological  and  definite  historical  concep- 
tions. Scholars  had  come  to  regard  the  words  of  the  ancients 
more  than  their  meaning,  even  as  style  rather  than  matter 
still  generally  decides  the  choice  of  classical  reading.  In 
their  limited  minds  they  were  always  ready  to  measure  the 
importance  of  archaeological  study  by  the  meagre  informa- 
tion they  had  concerning  its  materials. 

One  of  the  first  effects  of  this  misjudgment  was  the  neglect 
and  decay  of  the  ill-arranged  collections  of  antiques  then 
existing.  The  lamentable  fate  which  befell  so  many  of  the 
Arundel  marbles  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  lack  of  general 
interest  in  archaeological  studies  at  the  time.  Earl}'  in  the 
seventeenth  century  the  collection  had  been  brought  from  the 
Cyclades  to  England  by  a  fortunate  chance  ;  but  its  value 
could  not  then  be  worthily  appreciated.  The  influence  of 
this  unrivalled  accession  of  antiques  to  one  of  the  chief  cen- 
tres of  European  thought  is  hardly  perceptible  in  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  those  times.  The  statues  and  reliefs  in  vain 
appealed  to  the  learned  world  :  "Be  not  so  blind  ;  we,  too, 
•are  that  Hellas  which  ye  seek." 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL   INSTRUCTION.  93 

The  continental  museums  of  this  period,  while  accumulating 
worthless  curiosities  and  bric-a-brac  of  all  kinds,  dwindled 
in  character  to  the  discouraging  cabinets  of  varieties  which 
were  the  idle  delight  of  every  petty  potentate.  There  was 
no  conception  of  the  great  value  of  such  collections  as  indices 
of  former  development.  A  representative  work  of  this  mis- 
directed antiquarianism  is  Martorelli's  notorious  volume  of 
800  quarto  pages  on  an  antique  ink-stand  found  at  Portici, 
in  which  bulky  work  there  is  nothing  of  practical  importance, 
nothing  definite,  even  in  regard  to  antique  ink-stands. 

When  a  superficial  ki-owledge  of  Greek  antiquities  or 
costume  was  acquired,  it  was  only  to  play  an  ignoble  part 
in  the  masquerades  of  Louis  Quatorze.  Even  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Gessner,  in  the  first  years  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, these  branches  of  learning  were  generally  held  in  such 
low  esteem,  that  he,  the  learned  Rector  of  the  Thomas- 
Schule,  Gottingen  Professor,  and  President  of  the  wisest 
existing  Academy  of  Sciences,  seriously  recommended  a 
study  of  the  classics  to  the  homines  elegantes  of  his  day ; 
that  the}'  might  thereby  be  enabled  rightly  to  comprehend 
the  elaborate  displays  of  fire- works  then  in  vogue,  and  dilate 
with  learned  emotions  before  the  complicated  and  tasteless 
structures  of  white-of-egg  and  tinsel  placed  by  the  sugar 
bakers  upon  the  tables  of  the  great ! 

Such  was  the  debased  state  of  classical  instruction,  which 
resulted  from  a  neglect  of  that  material  discipline  of  anti- 
quity, assured  by  the  researches  of  the  archajologist  and  by 
the  practical  investigations  of  the  explorer.  The  rise  of 
humaniora  in  Germany  and  France  is  due  to  the  more  just 
recognition  of  the  unity  of  classical  studies. 

Apart  from  the  futility  of  such  comparisons,  no  archaeolo- 
gist would  go  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  the  group  from  the 
eastern  gable  of  the  Temple  of  Zeus,  at  Olympia,  is  more 


94  A  PLEA  FOE 

majestic  than  a  Pindaric  ode  ;  that  the  Victory  from  Samo- 
thrace  is  a  more  spirited  creation  than  the  warlike  chorus 
of  Oidipous  at  Kolonos  ;  or  that,  for  instance,  the  agora  and 
fortifications  at  Assos  convey  a  higher  conception  of  the  civic 
and  military  life  of  Greece  than  do  the  works  of  Xenophon. 
But  it  is  right  to  insist  upon  the  fact  that  the  thoughts  of  the 
Greek  poets  and  historians  are  presented  in  a  difficult  lan- 
guage, —  the  full  force  and  delicacy  of  which  are  only  to  be 
appreciated  after  years  of  devoted  study, — while  the  un- 
rivalled monuments  of  art  of  that  people  speak  directly  to 
the  intellect  and  heart  of  the  modern  observer.  It  would  be 
wrong  indeed  to  assert  that  the  language  of  Greek  architect- 
ure and  sculpture,  and  of  all  other  archaeological  materials 
as  well,  speaks  alike  to  all ;  for  archaeology  also  has  its 
grammar  and  lexicon.  Still,  it  remains  true  that  its  interest 
is  more  immediate  and  more  accessible. 

Ever}'  teacher  of  the  classics  knows  how  much  a  refer- 
ence to  an  antique  monument,  or  a  description  d  propos  of 
an  otherwise  obscure  passage,  increases  the  interest  and 
realit}-,  even  of  the  driest  author.  Such  explanations  awaken 
attention,  and  give  that  vivacity  of  conception  so  dependent 
upon  the  imagination.  A  line  of  Pindar  or  Theokritos  thus 
acquires  the  living  and  picturesque  value  of  modern  verse. 
Names  of  things  not  in  use  to-day  are  met  with  frequently  in 
the  usual  school  authors,  and  may  be,  in  fact  generally  are, 
mechanically  translated,  without  conveying  even  the  most 
vague  idea  of  their  real  signification.  But  let  the  objects, 
or  even  an  adequate  representation  of  them,  be  shown  to  the 
class,  and,  thenceforth,  the  pupil  will  see  in  the  word  the 
thing  itself,  — its  shape,  color,  and,  above  all,  its  character. 

Now,  archaeolog}'  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  all  antique 
literature  as  does  the  object  to  the  word  in  the  case  referred 
to.  Such  brilliant  discoveries  upon  ancient  sites,  as  the  last 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  95 

generation  has  witnessed,  give  us  that  feeling  of  the  inade- 
quacy of  our  theoretical  information,  which  is  the  greatest 
stimulant  to  advance.  They  open  new  and  far-stretching 
regions,  and  may  be  pronounced  the  only  specific  for  that 
common  and  most  dangerous  tendency  of  the  human  mind 
to  form  a  system  from  a  few  facts  accidentally  known,  and 
then  lapse  into  self-satisfied  sterility. 

Another  reason  wh}-  the  position  of  archaeology  should 
become  important  in  our  modern  plans  of  study  is  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  that,  although  political  research  attained 
the  full  perfection  of  its  apparatus  in  antique  fields,  histo- 
rians have  long  been  inclined  to  relinquish  the  prosecution 
of  Greek  and  Roman  history  to  classical,  and  particularly  to 
archaeological  specialists,  who  are  better  prepared  to  con- 
sider the  monumental  and  epigraphical  testimony  afforded 
by  the  remains  now  daily  brought  to  light.  The  present 
representatives  of  classical  science  cannot  be  too  thankful 
that  so  many  great  masters  of  historical  induction  have 
bestowed  upon  it  the  comprehensiveness  of  their  methods. 
In  return  for  this,  it  now  devolves  upon  epigraphists  and 
archaeologists  to  increase  the  supply  of  materials  for  the 
determination  of  the  political  and  social  relations  of  ancient 
life. 

What  better  illustration  of  the  brilliant  advance  of  the 
wealthy  cities  on  the  Lydian  and  Mysian  sea-board  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  have  we  than  the 
appearance  and  peculiar  transformation  of  Attic  architecture 
and  sculpture  in  Asia  Minor  during  this  period?  And  how 
could  the  political  union  of  the  small  autocratic  states  to  one 
world-wide  dominion  be  exemplified  and  defined  without  an 
understanding  of  the  art  and  material  culture  of  the  Hellen- 
istic and  earlier  Roman  epochs?  In  view  of  these  tasks  it 
almost  appears  that,  as  Littre  has  said,  the  true  end  of  :,!! 


96  A  PLEA  FOR 

erudition  is  to  furnish  materials  for  the  science  of  history. 
Our  age  has  no  greater  honor  than  the  zeal  with  which  all 
branches  of  learning  work  in  concert  to  recover  the  riches 
of  the  past  from  the  shadow  of  oblivion  ;  recognizing  the 
intellectual  physiognomy  of  extinct  races  by  the  traces  of 
its  material  expression.  It  is  by  the  acquirement  of  such 
knowledge  that  we  are  put  in  full  possession  of  the  attain- 
ments of  previous  generations,  and  become  capable  of  in- 
creasing and  improving  this  inheritance. 

In  this  regard,  archaeology,  though  late,  is  not  least  in 
rank  among  the  sister  sciences.  Not  one  furnishes  to  this 
grand  history  more  varied  and  more  solid  materials,  or  adds 
to  the  picture  of  former  greatness  firmer  outlines  and  brighter 
colors.  Indeed,  as  a  handmaid  of  History,  Archaeology  is 
more  trustworthy  than  Literature.  A  monument  of  assured 
authenticity  is  the  most  indisputable  witness  to  the  con- 
temporary fact  which  it  asserts.  An  author,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  have  been  content  to  follow  a  groundless  tradition,  to 
speak  on  hearsay,  sometimes  even  may  have  knowingly  mis- 
represented the  truth.  Moreover,  the  date  of  a  document  does 
not  necessarily  indicate  either  the  age  or  the  general  accept- 
ance of  the  fact  recorded,  still  less  of  the  idea  which  inspired 
it ;  while  a  work  of  art  involuntarily  and  unconsciously 
furnishes  us  with  this  information.  The  artist  of  a  complex 
and  imitative  age  may,  it  is  true,  attempt  to  mislead  his  gen- 
eration in  regard  to  the  spirit  of  his  design.  As  we  see,  to- 
day he  may  even  succeed  with  many  of  those  before  whom 
he  displays  his  archaistic  or  foreign  work.  But  he  cannot 
deceive  the  trained  discrimination  of  the  later  historian  of 
art. 

Every  form  given  to  a  material  by  man  is  the  envelope  or 
sign  of  a  thought.  Thoughts  thus  expressed  are  translated 
by  archaeology,  which  science  may  consequently  be  defined 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  97 

as  the  study  of  all  visible  monuments  of  early  human  activity ; 
it  excludes  from  its  limits  only  the  spoken  and  written  lan- 
guages of  the  past.  It  is  thus  the  science  which  alone  can 
teach  us  the  most  remote  history  of  the  race  ;  for,  while  man 
has  not  always  written,  he  has,  from  the  first  days  of  his 
existence,  fashioned  the  materials  which  surrounded  him  to 
accommodate  them  to  his  needs,  unconsciously  impressing 
upon  them  the  evidence  of  his  conceptions  and  abilities. 
Hence,  no  object,  however  insignificant  it  may  appear  to  un- 
trained eyes,  is  deemed  by  the  archaeologist  unworthy  his  stud}-. 
He  regards,  with  a  respectful  and  almost  tender  curiosity, 
the  smallest  vestige  of  an  earlier  age,  for  in  it  he  recognizes 
some  human  thought.  The  minutiae  of  archaeological  methods 
are  often  ridiculed  by  the  vulgar ;  nothing  is  more  easy  than 
to  jest  at  an  uncomprehended  activity  of  any  kind.  The 
justification  lies  in  the  result.  Those  researches  are  surely 
not  in  vain  by  which  we  are  enabled  to  decipher  a  single 
line  of  the  nearly  obliterated  pages  of  early  human  history. 

It  is  owing  to  those  self -sacrificing  explorers  who  for  the 
last  hundred  years  have  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Stuart 
and  Revett,  that  we  have  to-day  in  archaeology  a  new  science, 
which,  in  perfection  of  apparatus  and  results,  may  be  proud- 
ly ranked  with  comparative  anatomy :  that  branch  of  re- 
search which  practical  archaeology  most  closely  resembles  in 
point  of  method.  For,  as  the  naturalist  from  a  handful  of 
bones  can  present  the  image  and  describe  the  very  habits  of 
an  animal  which  for  thousands  of  years  has  had  no  repre- 
sentative on  earth,  so  can  the  classically  educated  architect 
reconstruct  the  buildings  of  extinct  civilizations  by  study  of 
their  overthrown  and  widely  scattered  stones.  And  as  the 
anatomist  sees  in  the  varieties  of  species  certain  stages  of 
advance  dependent  on  environing  conditions,  —  so  does  the 
student  of  antique  sculpture  note  in  the  monuments  of  the 


98  A   PLEA   FOR 

Asiatic  sea-board,  of  JEgina,  and  of  Attica,  the  develop- 
ment of  artistic  conceptions  and  technical  execution.  These 
observations  gradually  grow  to  a  history  of  a  perfectly 
parallel  human  advance,  a  warning  and  directing  guide. 

The  great  advantage  of  archaeological  studies  in  peda- 
gogical respects  lies  in  the  fact  that,  although  the  ultimate 
subject  of  research  is  the  human  mind,  it  deals  primarily 
with  the  tangible  facts  and  institutions  of  antiquity.  For 
the  purposes  of  instruction  it  has  all  the  advantages  of  the 
concrete  over  the  abstract.  Non  scholae,  sed  vitae.  Any 
man  who  builds  a  house,  or  drives  a  horse,  will  do  it  the 
better  for  knowing  how  houses  were  arranged,  or  horses 
trained,  in  the  antique  world.  This  must  surety  be  the 
manner  in  which  the  out-of-door  Greeks  would  themselves 
have  desired  to  be  studied.  It  has  often  been  remarked 
that  no  race  has  ever  lived  upon  whose  life  external  sur- 
roundings worked  with  deeper  effect.  More  than  any  other 
people  the  Hellenes  had  a  highly  developed  sense  of  the 
beautiful,  and  they  found  the  delights  to  be  derived  from 
this  appreciation  as  much  in  their  works  of  art  as  in  their 
poetrj-  and  eloquence.  Certainly  no  people  was  ever  so 
surrounded  by  works  of  its  own  hands,  and  these  works 
influenced  most  decisively  the  great  body  of  the  Greek 
public,  for  whom  the  scrolls  which  contained  the  writings  of 
their  comparatively  few  authors  were  far  out  of  reach.  It 
was  not  merely  a  literary  education  which  raised  the  citizens 
of  Athens  to  the  eminence  of  the  Pheidian  age  ;  it  was  not 
the  wisdom  of  their  writers,  but  of  their  artists  which 
occupied  the  most  prominent  place  in  the  minds  of  the  Greek 
people.  Archaeology  and  the  history  of  art  teach  us  to 
comprehend  Hellenic  genius  as  expressed  in  these  most 
characteristic  works,  which  may  be  of  a  like  beneficent 
influence  upon  our  receptive  and  cosmopolitan  generation. 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  99 

To  study  exclusively  the  literary  aspects  of  Greek  life,  to 
refuse  classical  archaeology  its  high  place  iu  the  unity  of 
Hellenic  studies,  is  to  refuse  to  profit  by  those  lessons  of 
antiquity  most  needed  by  modern  civilization. 

In  consideration  of  these  many  and  varied  advantages, — 
I  may  even  say  of  this  imperative  necessity,  —  it  is  certainly 
most  deplorable  that  there  is  to-day  absolutely  no  recognized 
archaeological  instruction  in  the  United  States.  A  barrier 
like  the  Chinese  Wall  seems  to  separate  those  who  study 
antiquity  in  its  written  works  from  those  who  seek  its  genius 
in  material  creations.  One  American  university  has,  in  the 
strength  of  its  youth,  lifted  itself  upon  tip-toe  to  glance  over 
the  wall ;  but  from  one  domain  to  the  other  there  is  no 
regularly  established  communication,  no  widely  open  gates. 

With  this  state  of  things  the  verdict  of  the  most  enlight- 
ened minds  concerning  the  results  of  our  pedagogical  sj-stems 
ought  not  to  surprise  us.  What  M.  Renan  has  said  is  only 
just:  "  The  United  States  has  created  considerable  popular 
instruction  without  any  serious  higher  instruction,  and  will 
long  have  to  expiate  this  fault  by  its  inteUectual  mediocrity, 
its  vulgarity  of  manners,  its  superficial  spirit,  its  lack  of 
general  intelligence."  Our  own  Lowell  has  stated  the  fact 
more  tersely :  ' '  Americans  are  the  most  common-schooled 
and  the  least  cultivated  people  in  the  world." 

The  gradual  advance  of  archaeology  in  the  academical  in- 
struction of  Europe  during  the  last  hundred  years  indicates 
one  of  the  most  important  lines  of  improvement.  The  six- 
teen most  prominent  universities  of  Germany,  for  instance, 
have  regular  chairs  of  archaeolog}',  and  there  are  doubtless 
others  which  have  escaped  the  inquhy  of  the  present  writer. 
Even  ten  years  ago,  when  Meyer  and  Stark  were  complain- 
ing so  bitterly  of  the  history  of  art,  "  that  Cinderella  among 


100  A  PLEA  FOE 

modern  sciences,"  being  neglected  by  native  universities, 
there  were  independent  professorships  of  this  branch,  in 
addition  to  the  regular  archaeological  instruction,  at  Berlin, 
Bonn,  Konigsberg,  Leipzig,  Munich,  Strassburg,  Prague, 
Tubingen,  Vienna,  and  Zurich. 

France,  England,  and  Italy  follow  this  example.  There 
exist  no  better  arguments  concerning  the  importance  of 
archaeological  studies  in  the  higher  curriculum  than  those 
delivered  by  M.  George  Perrot  upon  accepting  the  newly 
created  chair  of  archaeology  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  by  Mr. 
Percy  Gardener  upon  being  called  to  a  similar  position  at 
Cambridge. 

Even  so  small  a  university  as  that  of  Bucharest  has  a 
chair  of  archaeology.  The  fifteen  lectures  delivered  by 
Professor  Odobescu  on  the  pedagogic  importance  of  this 
science  and  its  history  up  to  the  time  of  Montfaucon1  are 
well  worthy  the  attention  of  those  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject. The  Roumanian  language  —  though  it  presents  no 
serious  difficulties  to  one  acquainted  with  the  other  daugh- 
ters of  the  Latin  —  has  not  hitherto  been  much  needed  by 
scholars  for  purposes  of  reference ;  the  appearance  in  it  of 
such  a  work  indicates  the  rapid  advance  of  archaeological 
studies  beyond  the  narrow  limits  to  which  the  last  generation 
saw  them  confined.  In  view  of  this  example,  given  by  a 
state  which  until  so  very  recently  was  between  the  upper 
and  nether  millstones  of  Oriental  misrule  and  disturbance, 
we  must  cease  to  lay  that  flattering  unction  to  our  American 
souls  which  has  too  often  been  found  in  the  "newness"  of 
our  country  and  its  institutions. 

The  decree  which  founded  the  Ecole  d'Ath&nes  gave  a 


1  A.  L.  Odobescu,  Istoria  Archeologiei,  Studiu  Intraductiou  la  Accsta 
Bciintia.    Bucbaresci,  1877. 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL   INSTRUCTION.  101 

great  and  enduring  impulse  to  these  studies  in  France  ;  let 
us  hope  that  our  new  American  School  at  Athens  may  be- 
come something  more  than  a  philological  seminary,  and 
develop  the  broad  interests  of  its  well-arranged  predecessors. 
For  it  is  in  Greece  itself,  amongst  the  vestiges  of  Hellenic 
civilization,  that  the  study  of  its  antiquities  is  pursued  to  the 
greatest  advantage.  Indeed,  the  chief  difficulty  of  archae- 
ological studies  lies  in  the  fact  that,  in  order  to  enjoy  and 
fully  to  understand  the  material  remains  of  antiquity,  it  is 
necessary  to  see  them  often,  and  to  study  them  closely.  By 
the  magic  of  a  few  lines  of  Homer,  of  Euripides,  of  Catullus, 
the  master  of  ancient  languages  carries  his  hearers  on  the 
wings  of  imagination  to  the  classical  world.  But  the 
archaeologist  and  the  historian  of  art  are  less  free  from 
the  material.  The  thoughts  which  they  stud}'  are  embodied 
in  a  tangible  form,  of  which  a  mere  description  is  necessarity 
insufficient.  It  is  not  difficult  to  lay  out  a  plan  of  archae- 
ological study,  aided  by  that  admirable  scheme  of  acade- 
mic instruction  founded  by  Hermann !  upon  K.  O.  Muller's 
great  work,  by  Gerhard's  similar  schedule  of  lectures,2 
and  by  useful  hints  to  be  derived  from  later  pedagog- 
ical treatises.3  The  difficulty  lies  rather  in  providing 
adequate  illustrations  for  the  historical  and  descriptive  course 
determined  upon.  Hence  an  imperative  requirement  is  the 
formation  of  a  collection  of  antiquities,  which  is  to  archae- 

1  Schema  akademischer  Vortrage   iiber  Archaologie,  oder  Geschichte 
der  Kunst  des  klassischen  Alterthums.    Von  Dr.  K.  Fr.  Hermann.    Gottin- 
gen,  1844. 

2  Grundriss  der  Archaeologie,  fuer  Vorlesungen,  nach  Mueller's  Hand- 
bnch.    Von  Ed.  Gerhard.     Berlin,  1853. 

3  One  of  many:   Vorschlage  zu  einer  Methode  des  asthetischen  Unter- 
richts,  nebst  Beispielen.     Mit  besonderer  Hervorhebung   der  Griechen. 
Von  Rudolf  Menge.    In  the    Padagogische    Studien,  Von    Dr.    Wilhelm 
Rein.    Heft  XII.    Eisenach. 


102  A   PLEA   FOE 

ology  what  a  laboratory  is  to  chemistry.  In  this  respect 
also  the  example  is  given  by  European  countries.  As  late 
as  1850  Gerhard  could  scarcely  find  material  in  Berlin  for 
the  illustration  of  his  lectures ;  but  in  1873  only  five  of 
the  German  universities  (the  inferior  establishments  of 
Erlangen,  Giessen,  Marburg,  Munster,  and  Rostock)  were 
without  archaeological  collections  intended  for  the  purposes 
of  instruction.  Many  of  these  have  gradually  grown  to 
great  importance,  Bonn,  Breslau,  and  Wurzburg  possessing 
antiques  of  inestimable  value.  Even  the  preparatory  schools 
of  Germany  often  have  admirably  complete  collections  of  casts, 
—  as,  for  instance,  that  in  the  little  town  of  Schulpforta, 
the  catalogue  of  which,  by  Benndorf,  is  a  work  of  independ- 
ent scientific  interest. 

For  the  illustration  of  the  historj1-  of  classical  sculpture 
such  a  collection  should  consist  of  types  chosen  to  represent 
the  characteristics  of  different  centuries  and  of  various 
schools,  rather  than  of  those  elegant  and  familiar  figures 
which  please  at  first  sight.  These  examples  should  be 
arranged  as  far  as  possible  in  chronological  order,  so  as  to 
exhibit  the  modifications  of  technical  methods  and  style,  the 
gradual  development  of  artistic  means,  the  advance  from 
the  archaic  to  the  highest  perfection,  and,  finally,  the  affec- 
tation and  insincerity  of  work  which  led  to  the  decadence. 
Without  such  collections,  or  the  far  less  trustworthy  aid  of 
engravings  and  photographs,  the  history  of  antique  art  and 
archaeology  can  only  be  pursued  at  the  expense  of  laborious 
journeys,  impossible  to  most  students,  which  even  the  pro- 
fessional explorer  has  continually  to  recommence. 

Much  has  already  been  done  in  Europe  to  give  to  classical 
studies  their  true  importance  and  to  enable  them  to  exercise 
their  peculiarly  salutary  influence  upon  our  generation  ;  but 
far  more  remains.  We  have  improved,  it  is  true,  upon  the 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL   INSTRUCTION.  103 

narrow  pedantry  of  Coming  and  Gessner,  to  whom  the 
texts  were  everything.  The  science  of  antiquity  has  become 
something  more  than  that  sujfisance  purement  livresque  ridi- 
culed by  Montaigne.  But  practical  explorations  are  still 
not  sufficiently  encouraged,  and  archaeological  instruction  as 
yet  has  not  attained  its  worthy  place. 

The  great  "NYinckelmann  stood  on  the  portal  between  the 
past  and  the  present  of  classical  learning.  It  was  the  sug- 
gestivencss  of  his  historical  methods  that  first  pointed  out 
the  way  which  has  led  from  the  tasteless  and  unprofitable 
collector's  mania  of  the  Roccoco  to  the  eminence  of  true 
archaeological  science.  But  even  in  his  exposition  much 
was  empirical,  disconnected,  and  hopelessly  entangled.  The 
purely  literary  accounts  of  artistic  development  in  Egypt, 
Mesopotamia,  Phoenicia,  and  Greece  obscured  rather  than 
enlightened  the  scholars  of  the  last  century,  and  were  ever 
before  their  eyes  like  distorting  fogs. 

As  late  as  the  time  of  Zoega  and  Visconti  the  field  of 
archaeology  was  a  promised  land,  —  seen  by  them  with  much 
the  feelings  of  Moses  upon  Mount  Pisgah.  It  has  first  be- 
come possible  to  the  younger  generation  of  to-day  to  enter 
into  full  possession  of  the  milk  and  honey  of  Greek  perfec- 
tion. And  this  possibility  is  almost  wholly  due  to  the 
investigations  of  practical  workers  upon  classic  soil,  and  to 
those  archaeological  scholars  who  have  taught  the  world  the 
true  value  of  the  materials  thus  obtained. 


THE  USE  OF  A  PUBLIC  LIBRARY  IN  THE 
STUDY  or  HISTORY, 


BY  WM.  E.  FOSTER,  LIBRARIAN  OF  THE  PROVIDENCE  PUBLIC  LIBRARY, 


IT  would  be  a  mistake  to  assume  that  the  usefulness  of 
such  an  institution  as  a  public  library  is  manifested  ex- 
clusively, or  even  chiefly,  in  connection  with  any  one  line  of 
investigation.  On  the  contrary,  the  demands  made  upon  it 
represent  the  widest  variety  of  studies  and  researches.  At 
the  same  time,  some  of  its  methods  have  been  found  to  adapt 
themselves  with  peculiar  directness  to  the  requirements  of 
historical  study. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  instances  cited  below  are 
drawn  in  every  case  from  the  experience  of  a  single  library  ;' 
yet  many  of  the  phases  of  the  work  here  indicated  may  no 
doubt  be  met  with  in  other  libraries  ;  and  there  would  seem 
to  be  no  inherent  reason  why  they  are  not  applicable  to 
libraries  in  general. 

From  the  outset  there  has  been  a  definite  purpose  to  main- 
tain a  concert  of  action,  and  a  mutual  understanding,  between 
this  library,  on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  such  institu- 
tions and  agencies  as  a  local  historical  society,  courses  of 
study  in  college  and  in  the  public  schools,  private  schools, 
local  debating  societies,  private  historical  classes,  and  bodies 

1  The  Providence  Public  Library. 


106  THE   USE   OF   A    PUBLIC    LIBRARY 

of  students  pursuing  the  admirable  courses  of  the  Society  to 
Encourage  Studies  at  Home,  and  similar  plans  of  study.  In 
the  college  just  referred  to  —  Brown  University  —  topics  are 
regularly  assigned  for  theme- writing,  not  only  in  the  depart- 
ment of  history,  but  in  that  of  English  literature  and  English 
composition.  In.  one  of  these  departments  from  the  outset, 
and  in  the  other  during  a  great  portion  of  the  time,  a  memo- 
randum of  the  topics  assigned  has  been  invariably  sent  to  the 
public  library  ;  and  carefully  prepared  lists  of  references  to 
authorities  have  thereupon  been  made!  Naturally  a  large 
share  of  the  topics  in  both  the  departments  above  mentioned 
may  be  described  as  distinctly  historical ;  in  many  cases, 
however,  biographical  or  literary.  The  lists  of  references 
thus  prepared' have  not  merely  been  forwarded  to  the  college 
class,  but  have  also  been  placed  on  file  at  the  library,  for  the 
use  of  the  students.  Gradually,  moreover,  an  extension  of 
this  system  to  the  requirements  of  the  other  readers  and 
students  named  above  —  those  of  the  public  and  private 
schools,  etc. — has  grown  up,  in  which  the  same  method 
is  followed  with  greater  or  less  elaborateness.  The  aim  has 
been,  in  short,  to  observe  diligently  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  actual  demands  upon  the  library  for  specific  assistance  of 
this  kind,  and  then  to  meet  it  in  the  fullest  possible  manner. 

But  this  is  only  one  phase  of  the  work ;  for  the  aim  has 
been  not  merely  to  meet  such  a  demand,  but  to  create  it  as 
well.  For  instance,  it  has  been  the  unbroken  practice,  from 
the  very  first  day  on  which  the  library  was  opened,1  to  post  a 
series  of  "daily  notes"  on  current  events  and  topics.  A 
newspaper  slip,  cut  in  nearly  every  instance  from  the  morn- 
ing paper  of  the  current  date,  is  posted  on  the  bulletin-board 
in  the  public  portion  of  the  library ;  and  under  this  are 

i  In  1878. 


IN   THE   STUDY    OF   HISTORY.  107 

grouped  references  to  authorities,  —  in  many  instances  citing 
volume  and  page,  —  which  illustrate,  or  supplement,  or  in 
some  way  bear  upon  this  topic.  Opposite  each  entry,  more- 
over, the  reader  finds  the  book-number,  by  which  to  apply 
for  the  work  in  question ;  and  this  he  is  very  likely  to  do. 
It  is,  in  fact,  a  slice  out  of  the  catalogue  which  is  thus  pre- 
sented to  the  attention  of  readers  each  morning,  but  the 
references  are  on  a  much  more  minute  plan  than  would  be 
possible  in  any  ordinary  catalogue.  What  relation,  it  may 
be  asked,  has  this  to  the  study  of  history  ?  In  the  first  place, 
most  of  the  topics  thus  presented,  distinctly  illustrate  Mr. 
Freeman's  suggestion,  that  "History  is  past  politics;  and 
politics  present  history  "  ;  and  during  the  past  six  years  cases 
in  point  have  been  the  "Berlin  Congress,"  "  Nihilism  in 
Russia,"  the  "Operations  in  Egypt,"  etc.  In  the  second 
place,  it  has  been  found  that  the  works  in  the  library,  to 
which  the  references  have  thus  been  made,  are,  in  a  very  large 
percentage  of  instances,  works  of  standard  history. 

The  most  significant  fact  in  connection  with  this  system  of 
suggestions  and  assistance  is  the  completeness  with  which 
it  has  been  recognized  and  used  by  the  readers.  These  daily 
notes,  hanging  always  in  a  well-recognized  place,  near  the 
entrance,  have  from  the  first  been  regularly  scanned ;  and 
the  extent  to  which  the  suggestions  have  actually  been  put  in 
practice  has  been  at  all  times  an  appreciable  feature  in  the 
intelligent  use  made  of  the  library.  But  this  "  daily  "  system, 
though  the  earliest  of  the  library's  schemes  of  suggesting  lines 
of  reading,  has  not  been  the  only  one.  From  it,  as  a  basis, 
have  been  developed  several  very  interesting  outgrowths,  in 
some  instances  unforeseen.  (1)  It  was  found  that  these 
daily  lists  had,  in  the  eyes  of  the  readers,  a  more  than 
ephemeral  value.  They  were  not  merely  examined  on  the 
day  when  posted,  but  were  consulted  weeks  after,  by  those 


108  THE   USE   OF   A   PUBLIC   LIBRARY 

who  remembered  having  seen  on  a  given  clay  a  list  on  a  given 
subject.  So  many,  moreover,  were  the  instances  in  which  a 
desire  was  expressed  to  make  copies  of  the  more  extended 
lists,  that  the  copying  process  known  as  the  hektograph  was 
introduced,  and  thus  a  number  of  copies  could  be  supplied  to 
those  who  desired  them.  (2)  To  the  surprise  of  the  librarian, 
the  number  of  readers  who  could  thus  be  supplied  (70  or  75) 
was  soon  found  to  be  too  limited,  and  resort  was  had  to 
printing  them.  At  first  this  was  only  at  rare  intervals,  and 
in  special  cases,  but  in  1880  the  practice  was  begun  —  and 
since  continued  without  interruption  —  of  regular  weekly 
printed  lists  in  each  of  two  local  daily  newspapers.  This 
has  proved  an  eminently  practical  and  successful  measure. 
The  library's  "  constituency,"  so  to  speak,  consisting  of  the 
local  public,  has,  placed  under  its  eyes  each  week,  whether 
visiting  the  library  in  person  or  not,  a  memorandum  of  read- 
ing, in  certain  specified  lines.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is 
noticed  that  in  a  large  number  of  instances  readers  come  to 
the  library  with  these  weekly  lists  in  their  hands,  which  they 
have  cut  from  their  newspaper,  and  which  they  plainly  use  as 
a  species  of  order-list.  (3)  The  next  step  is  of  curious 
interest  as  illustrating  the  repeatedly  demonstrated  fact,  that 
the  usefulness  of  such  an  institution  is  not  limited  by  the 
district  or  municipality  in  which  it  is  situated.  In  response 
to  numerous  requests,  several  of  the  more  extended  lists  were 
printed  in  the  "Library  Journal"  (New  York),  and  else- 
where, in  1880.  In  1881,  however,  was  begun  the  regular 
monthly  issue  of  the  periodical  entitled  the  "  Monthly  Refer- 
ence Lists." 

This  periodical,  published  at  a  specified  subscription-price, 
began  with  a  subscription-list  which  was  chiefly  local,  but 
which  has  gradually  widened  to  include  readers  in  all  parts  of 
this  country,  and  several  in  Europe.  Among  the  historical 


IN   THE   STUDY   OF   HISTORY.  109 

lists  which  have  appeared  in  this,  from  month  to  month,  have 
been  references  on  such  current  topics  as  ' '  The  Stability  of 
the  French  Republic,"  "  The  German  Empire,"  "  European 
Interests  in  Egypt,"  "  Indian  Tribes  in  the  United  States," 
etc.  At  the  same  time  a  very  general  demand  for  references 
in  connection  with  topics  which  may  be  called  standard, 
rather  than  current,  has  led  to  the  furnishing  of  lists  on  such 
subjects  as  "  The  Unification  of  Italy,'  '"  The  Closing  Years 
of  the  Roman  Republic,"  "The  Plantagenets  in  England," 
and  "Tendencies  of  Local  Self-government  in  the  United 
States."  Other  topics  again,  like  "Elements  of  Unity  in 
South -Eastern  Europe,"  stand  for  the  interest  awakened  by 
historical  lectures  like  those  of  Mr.  Freeman  ;  while  still 
others,  like  "  Yorktown,"  plainly  connect  themselves  with 
the  recurrence  of  some  anniversary. 

Certainly  not  the  least  noteworthy  of  the  phases  of  recent 
historical  research  has  been  the  newly-awakened  interest  in 
the  study  of  American  history,  and  very  naturally  the  read- 
ing and  study  connected  with  public  libraries  have  reflected 
this  fact.  Four  years  ago  the  librarian  prepared  for  use  in 
connection  with  several  of  the  schools,  a  series  of  lists  on 
American  history,  covering  (1)  the  early  stages  of  colonial 
history,  (2)  the  adoption  of  the  constitution,  and  (3)  United 
States  history  since  1789.  The  first  set  of  these  lists  (on 
the  colonies)  has  been  printed,  in  part,  in  the  "  Library 
Journal ";  the  second  (on  the  constitution),  in  "Economic 
tract,  No.  2,"  issued  by  the  Society  for  Political  Education, 
in  1881.;  while  the  third  (on  the  administrations  since  1789), 
has  for  the  past  year  been  published,  month  by  mouth,  in 
the  "Monthly  Reference  Lists";  a  separate  list  being 
devoted  to  the  administration  of  each  successive  president. 
In  thus  re-issuing  them,  the  librarian  has  wished  to  render 
them  as  distinctly  adapted  to  the  use  of  readers  as  possible ; 


110  THE   USE   OF   A   PUBLIC   LIBRARY 

and  the  proofs  have  accordingly  passed,  month  by  month, 
under  the  eyes  of  accomplished  historical  investigators  at 
Cambridge,  New  Haven,  Ithaca,  Princeton,  Baltimore,  Ann 
Arbor,  and  Madison. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  more  significant  feature  connected 
with  an  institution  like  a  public  library,  than  the  fact  that  its 
service  is  rendered  alike  to  the  intelligent  reader  and  to  the 
untrained  mind  ;  to  the  specialist  and  to  the  general  reader. 
What  has  been  the  fact  in  connection  with  the  class  last 
named?  Greatly  to  the  librarian's  satisfaction,  it  has  been 
found  that  one  of  the  results  of  this  systematic  plan  of  assist- 
ance and  suggestions,  is  actually  to  awaken  an  interest  where 
none  existed,  and  to  supply  a  clue  to  historical  researches, 
which  may  be  followed  out,  with  greater  or  less  comprehen- 
siveness, by  the  reader  himself.  In  repeated  instances  com- 
ing under  the  librarian's  own  observation,  this  result  has 
been  noted,  and  it  is  of  course  impossible  to  say  in  how  many 
other  instances  it  may  have  been  the  case.  And,  in  truth,  it 
is  not  at  all  strange  that  it  should  be  so.  These  daily, 
weekly,  and  monthly  references,  on  topics  of  current  interest, 
are  precisely  in  the  line  of  what  is  at  the  time  uppermost  in 
the  thought  of  the  public  ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  they 
appeal  to  the  interested  attention  of  a  very  wide  circle  of 
readers  with  so  much  more  than  ordinary  directness. 

A  study  of  library  methods  like  these,  moreover,  reveals 
the  very  marked  extent  to  which  a  public  library  becomes 
almost  of  necessity  an  agency  in  the  diffusion  of  knowledge. 
Given  a  certain  portion  of  the  library's  constituency  who  are 
known  to  be  desirous  of  certain  aids  to  advanced  research  ; 
given  also  the  desired  aids.  Who  is  to  say  that  the  only  ones 
who  will  avail  themselves  of  these  aids  are  the  skilled  students 
for  whom  they  are  primarily  supplied?  The  reverse  has,  in 
fact,  been  found  to  be  the  case,  by  actual  observation.  Thu 


IN   THE    STUDY    OF    HISTORY.  Ill 

references  in  connection  with  college  themes,  for  instance, 
placed  on  file  at  the  library,  where  they  may  be  used  by  any 
one,  have  indeed  been  constantly  used  by  the  students  them- 
selves ;  but  they  have  also  been  used  to  a  very  marked  extent 
by  the  general  public.  There  should  be  observed,  of  course, 
on  the  one  hand,  a  caution  against  "  shooting  above  the  heads 
of  the  public  "  ;  but  there  is  a  no  less  important  necessity,  on 
the  other,  for  not  undervaluing  the  intelligence  of  readers, 
and  for  supplying  what  may  even  be  regarded  as  a  mental 
stimulus  or  impulse.  In  historical  studies,  as  in  other  fields 
of  investigation,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  public 
library  may  so  ally  itself  (to  quote  from  Mr.  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  Jr.)  with  certain  "  wide,  deep  currents  of  popular 
taste,"  and  with  the  pervasive  spirit  of  the  time,  as  to  become 
a  constant  force  in  the  progress  towards  better  results. 


SPECIAL  METHODS  OF  HISTORICAL  STUDY* 

AS  PURSUED  AT  THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY 
AND  FORMERLY  AT  SMITH  COLLEGE. 


BY  PROFESSOR  HERBERT  B.  ADAMS,  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY. 

THE  main  principle  of  historical  training  at  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  is  to  encourage  independent  thought  and 
/esearch.  Little  heed  is  given  to  text-books,  or  the  mere 
phraseology  of  history,  but  all  stress  is  laid  upon  clear  and 
original  statements  of  fact  and  opinion,  whether  the  student's 
own  or  the  opinion  of  a  consulted  author.  The  comparative 
method  of  reading  and  study  is  followed  by  means  of  assign- 
ing to  individual  members  of  the  class  separate  topics,  with 
references  to  various  standard  works.  These  topics  are  duly 
reported  upon  by  the  appointees,  either  ex  tempore,  with  the 
the  aid  of  a  few  notes,  or  in  formal  papers,  which  are  dis- 
cussed at  longth  by  the  class.  The  oral  method  has  been 

O  »/ 

found  to  afford  a  better  opportunity  than  essays  for  question 
and  discussion,  and  it  is  in  itself  a  good  means  of  individual 
training,  for  the  student  thereby  learns  to  think  more  of  sub- 
stance than  of  form.  Where  essays  are  written,  more  time 

1  This  article  contains  extracts  from  a  paper  on  ' '  History :  Its  Place 
in  American  Colleges,"  originally  contributed  in  October,  1879,  to  The 
Alumnus,  a  literary  and  educational  quarterly  then  published  in  Phila- 
delphia, but  now  suspended  and  entirely  out  of  print.  A  few  extracts  hvtre 
also  been  made  from  an  article  on  "Co-operation  in  University  Work,"  in 
the  second  number  of  The  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in  Historical 
and  Political  Science.  But  the  body  of  the  article  is  new,  and  was  written 
by  request,  for  the  purpose  of  suggesting  to  teachers  how  the  study  of  His- 
tory might  be  made  more  interesting  and  vital  by  beginning  upon  home 
ground,  with  the  investigation  of  local  life  and  its  widening  relations. 


114  SPECIAL  METHODS   OF 

is  usually  expended  on  style  than  on  the  acquisition  of  facts. 
If  the  student  has  a  well-arranged  brief,  like  a  lawyer's,  and 
a  head  full  of  ideas,  he  will  express  himself  at  least  intel- 
ligibly, and  clearness  and  elegance  will  come  with  sufficient 
practice.  "The  ex  tempore  method,  with  a  good  brief  or 
abstract  (which  may  be  dictated  to  the  class)  is  one  of  the 
best  methods  for  the  teacher  as  well  as  for  the  student.  The 
idea  should  be,  in  both  cases,  to  personify  historical  science 
in  the  individual  who  is  speaking  upon  a  given  topic.  A  book 
or  an  essay,  however  symmetrical  it  may  be,  is  often  only  a 
fossil,  a  lifeless  thing  ;  but  a  student  or  teacher  talking  from 
a  clear  head  is  a  fountain  of  living  science.  A  class  of  bright 
minds  quickly  discern  the  difference  between  a  phrase-maker 
and  a  man  of  ideas. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  kind  of  subjects  in  mediaeval  his- 
tory studied  in  1878,  independently  of  any  text-book,  by  a 
class  of  undergraduates,  from  eighteen  to  twenty-two  }-ears 
of  age,  the  following  list  of  essay-topics  is  appended  :  — 

1.  Influence  of   Roman   law   during  the  middle  ages.     (Savigny, 

Sir  Henry  Maine,  Guizot,  Hadley.) 

2.  The  kingdom  of  Theodoric,  the  East  Goth.     (Milman,  Gibbon, 

Freeman.) 

3.  The  conversion  of  Germany.     (Merivale,  Milman,  Trench.) 

4.  The  conversion  of  England.      (Bede,  Milman,  Freeman,  Mont- 

alembert,  Trench.) 

5.  The  civilizing  influence  of  the  Benedictine  Monks.     (Montalern- 

bert,  Gibbon,  Milman.) 

6.  Cloister  and  cathedral  schools.      (Einhard,  Guizot,  Mullinger.) 

7.  The   origin   and  character  of  mediaeval  universities.      (Green, 

History  of  England;  Lacroix;  various  university  histories.) 

8.  Modes  of  legal  procedure  among  the  early  Teutons.      (Waitz, 

J.  L.  Laughlin,  Lea.) 

9.  Report  of    studies   in    "Anglo-Saxon    Law."      (Henry  Adams 

et  al\ 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  115 

10.  Origin  of  Feudalism.      Feudal  rights,   aids,   and    incidents. 

(Guizot,  Hallam,  Stubbs,  Digby,  Maine,  Waitz,  Roth.) 

11.  Evils  of  Feudalism.     (Authorities  as  above.) 

12.  Benefits  of  Feudalism.     (As  above.) 

13.  The  Saxon  Witenagemot  and  its  historical  relation  to  the  House 

of  Lords.     (Freeman,  Stubbs,  Hallam,  Guizot.) 

14.  Origin  of  the  House  of  Commons.      (Pauli,  Creighton,  and 

authorities  above  stated.) 

15.  Origin  of  communal  liberty.      (Hegel,  Stadteverfassung  von 

Italien ;  Testa,  Communes  of  Lombardy ;  Wauters,  Les  liber- 
tes  communales ;  Stubbs,  Freeman,  Guizot,  et  a/.) 

At  Smith  College,  an  institution  founded  at  Northampton, 
Massachusetts,  by  a  generous  woman,  in  the  interest  of  the 
higher  education  of  her  sex,  the  study  of  histor}*  is  pursued 
by  four  classes  in  regular  gradation,  somewhat  after  the  col- 
lege model.  The  First,  corresponding  to  the  "Freshman" 
class,  study  oriental  or  ante-classic  history,  embracing  the 
Stone  Age,  Egypt,  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  the  empires  of  Meso- 
potamia and  ancient  India.  This  course  was  pursued  in 
1879  by  dictations  and  ex  tempore  lectures  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  and  by  independent  reading  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 
The  first  thing  done  by  the  teacher  in  the  introduction  to  the 
history  of  any  of  the  above-mentioned  countries,  was  to  ex- 
plain the  sources  from  which  the  history  of  that  country  waa 
derived,  and  then  to  characterize  briefly  the  principal  literary 
works  relating  to  it,  not  omitting  historical  novels,  like  Ebers' 
"  Egyptian  Princess,"  or  "Uarda."  Afterwards,  the  salient 
features,  in  Egyptian  history,  for  example,  were  presented  by 
the  instructor,  under  distinct  heads,  such  as  geography,  re- 
ligion, art,  literature,  and  chronology.  Map-drawing  by  and 
before  the  class  was  insisted  upon  ;  and,  in  connection  with 
the  foregoing  subjects,  books  or  portions  of  books  were  recom- 
mended for  private  reading.  For  instance,  on  the  ' '  Geography 


116  SPECIAL   METHODS   OF 

of  Egypt,"  fifty  pages  of  Herodotus  were  assigned  in  Rawlin- 
son's  translation.  This,  and  other  reading,  was  done  in  the 
so-called  "  Reference  Library,"  which  was  provided  with  all 
the  books  that  were  recommended.  An  oral  account  of  such 
reading  was  sooner  or  later  demanded  from  each  pupil  by 
the  instructor,  and  fresh  points  of  information  were  thus  con- 
tinually brought  out.  The  amount  of  positive  fact  acquired 
by  a  class  of  seventy-five  bright  young  women  bringing  to- 
gether into  one  focus  so  many  individual  rays  of  knowledge, 
collected  from  the  best  authorities,  is  likely  to  burn  to  ashes 
the  dry  bones  of  any  text-book,  and  to  keep  the  instructor  at 
a  white  heat. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  amount  of  reading  done  in  one 
term  of  ten  weeks  by  this  class  of  beginners  in  history, 
the  following  fair  specimen  of  the  lists  handed  in  at  the 
end  of  the  academic  year  of  1879  is  appended.  The  read- 
ing was  of  course  by  topics :  — 

EGYPT. 

Unity  of  History  (Freeman). 

Geography  (Herodotus). 

Gods  of  Egypt  (J.  Freeman  Clarke). 

Manners  and  Customs  (Wilkinson). 

Upper  Egypt  (Klunzinger). 

Art  of  Egypt  (Liibke). 

Hypatia  (Kingsley). 

Egyptian  Princess  (Ebers). 

PALESTINE. 

Sinai  and  Palestine,  40  pages  (Stanley). 
History  of  the  Jews  (extracts  from  Josephus). 
The  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  Chap.  VII.  (Fisher) 
Religion  of  the  Hebrews  (J.  Freeman  Clarke). 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  117 

PHCENICIA,    ASSYRIA,    ETC. 

Phoenicia,  50  pages  (Kenrick). 
Assyrian  Discoveries  (George  Smith). 
Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis  (George  Smith). 
Assyrian  Architecture  (Fergusson). 
Art  of  Central  Asia  (Liibke). 

In  the  Second,  or  "•Sophomore"  class,  classic  history  was 
pursued  by  means  of  the  History  Primers  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  supplemented  by  lectures  and  dictations,  as  the  time 
would  allow.  The  Junior  class  studied  mediaeval  history  in 
much  the  same  way,  by  text-books  (the  Epoch  Series)  and 
by  lectures.  Both  classes  did  excellent  work  of  its  kind,  but 
it  was  not  the  best  kind  ;  for  little  or  no  stimulus  was  given 
to  original  research.  And  yet,  perhaps,  to  an  outsider,  fond 
of  old-fashioned  methods  of  recitation,  these  classes  would 
have  appeared  better  than  the  First  class.  They  did  harder 
work,  but  it  was  less  spontaneous  and  less  scientific.  The 
fault  was  a  fault  of  method. 

With  the  Senior  class  the  method  described  as  in  use  at 
the  Johns  Hopkins  University  was  tried  with  marked  suc- 
cess. With  text-books  on  modern  history  as  a  guide  for  the 
whole  class,  the  plan  was  followed  out  of  assigning  to  indi- 
viduals subjects  with  references  for  private  reading  and 
for  an  oral  report  of  about  fifteen  minutes'  length.  The  class 
took  notes  on  these  reports  or  informal  student-lectures 
us  faithfully  as  on  the  extended  remarks  and  more  formal 
lectures  of  the  instructor.  This  S3'stem  of  making  a  class 
lecture  to  itself  is,  of  course,  very  unequal  in  its  immediate 
results,  and  sometimes  unsatisfactory ;  but,  as  a  S3'stem  of 
individual  training  for  advanced  pupils,  it  is  valuable  as  a 
means  both  of  culture  and  of  discipline.  Contrast  the  good 
to  the  individual  student  of  any  amount  of  mere  text-book 


118  SPECIAL   METHODS   OF 

memorizing  or  idle  note-taking  with  the  positive  culture  and 
wide  acquaintance  with  books,  derived  in  ten  iveeks  from  such 
a  range  of  reading  as  is  indicated  in  the  following  bond  fide 
report  by  one  member  of  the  Senior  class  (1879),  who  after- 
wards was  a  special  student  of  history  for  two  years  in  the 
"Annex"  at  Harvard  College,  and  who  in  1881  returned  to 
Smith  College  for  her  degree  of  Ph.D.  First  are  given  the 
subjects  assigned  to  this  young  woman  for  research,  and  the 
reading  done  by  her  in  preparation  for  report  to  the  class  ; 
and  then  is  given  the  list  of  her  general  reading  in  connec- 
tion with  the  class  work  of  the  term.  Other  members  of  the 
class  had  other  subjects  and  similar  reports :  — 

I. SUBJECTS    FOR    RESEARCH. 

1.  Anselm  and  Roscellinus. 

Milman's  Latin  Christianity,  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  190-225. 
Ueberweg's  History  of  Philosophy,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  271-385. 

2.  Platonic  Academy  at  Florence. 

Roscoe's  Life  of  Lorenzo  di  Medici,  Vol.  L,  p.  30  et  seq. 
Burckhardt's  Renaissance,  Vol.  I. 
Villari's  Machiavelli,  Vol.  L,  p.  205  et  seq. 

3.  Colet. 

Seebohm's  Oxford  Reformers. 

4.  Calvin. 

Fisher's  History  of  the  Reformation  (Calvin). 

Spalding's  History  of  the  Reformation  (Calvin). 

D'Aubigne's  History  of  the  Reformation,  Vol.  I.,  book  2,  chap.  7. 

5.  Frederick  the  Great. 

Macaulay's  Essay  on  Frederick  the  Great. 
Lowell's  Essay  on  Frederick  the  Great. 
Ency.  Brit.  Article  on  Frederick  the  Great. 
MenzePs  History  of  Germany  (Frederick  the  Great). 
Carlyle's  Frederick  the  Great  (parts  of  Vols.  L,  II.,  III.). 

6.  Results  of  the  French  Revolution. 
French  Revolution  (Epoch  Series). 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  119 

II. GENERAL    READING. 

Roscoe's  Life  of  Leo  X.  (one-half  of  Vol.  L). 

Mrs.  Oliph  ant's  Makers  of  Florence  (on  cathedral  builders,  Savo- 
narola, a  Private  Citizen,  Michel  Angelo). 

Symonds'  Renaissance  (Savonarola). 

Walter  Pater's  Renaissance  (Leonardo -da  Vinci). 

Hallam's  Middle  Ages  (on  Italian  Republics). 

Benvenuto  Cellini's  Autobiography  (about  one-half). 

Burckhardt's  Renaissance  (nearly  all). 
'Vasari's  Lives  of  the  Painters  (da  Vinci,  Alberti). 

Lowell's  Essay  on  Dante. 

Carlyle's  Essay  on  Dante. 

Trench's  Mediaeval  Church  History  (Great  Councils  of  the  West, 
Huss  and  Bohemia,  Eve  of  the  Reformation). 

Fisher's  History  of  the  Reformation  (Luther). 

White's  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries  (16th). 

Macaulay's  Essay  on  Ranke's  History  of  the  Popes. 

Lecky's  European  Morals  (last  chapter). 

Seebohm's  Era  of  the  Protestant  Revolution. 

Froude's  Short  Studies  on  Great  Subjects  (studies  on  the  times 
of  Erasmus  and  Luther,  the  Dissolution  of  the  Monasteries). 

Spalding's  History  of  the  Reformation  (chapter  on  Luther). 

Carlyle's  Essay  on  Luther  and  Knox. 

Hosmer's  German  Literature  (chapters  on  Luther,  Thirty  Years' 
War,  Minnesingers  and  Mastersingers). 

Gardiner's  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Morris's  Age  of  Anne. 

George  Eliot's  Romola  (about  one-half). 

Hawthorne's  Marble  Faun  (parts). 

It  is  but  fair  to  say  in  reference  to  this  vast  amount  of 
reading,  that  it  represents  the  chief  work  done  by  the  above- 
mentioned  young  lady  during  the  summer  term,  for  her  class 
exercises  were  mainly  lectures  requiring  little  outside  study. 
The  list  will  serve  not  merehT  as  an  illustration  of  Senior 
work  in  history  at  Smith  College,  but  also  as  an  excellent 


120  SPECIAL   METHODS   OF 

guide  for  a  course  of  private  reading  on  the  Renaissance  and 
Reformation.  No  more  interesting  or  profitable  course  can  be 
followed  than  a  study  of  the  Beginnings  of  Modern  History. 
With  Symonds'  works  on  the  "Renaissance  in  Italy,"  Burck- 
hardt's  "  Civilization  of  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance"  (Eng- 
lish translation),  and  Seebohm's  "Era  of  the  Protestant 
Revolution"  (Epoch  series)  for  guide-books,  a  college  in- 
structor can  indicate  to  his  pupils  lines  of  special  investiga- 
tion more  grateful  than  text-book  "cramming,"  more  inspiring 
than  lectures  or  dictations.  The  latter,  though  good  to  a 
certain  extent,  become  deadening  to  a  class  when  its 
members  are  no  longer  stimulated  to  original  research,  but 
sink  back  in  passive  reliance  upon  the  authority  of  the  lec- 
turer. That  method  of  teaching  history  which  converts 
bright  young  pupils  into  note-taking  machines  is  a  bad 
method.  It  is  the  construction  of  a  poor  text-book  at  the 
expense  of  much  valuable  time  and  youthful  energy.  Goethe 
satirized  this,  the  fault  of  German  academic  instruction,  in 
Mephistopheles'  counsel  to  the  student,  who  is  advised  to 
study  well  his  notes,  in  order  to  see  that  the  professor  says 
nothing  which  he  hasn't  said  already :  — 

Damit  ihr  nachher  besser  seht, 
Dass  er  nichts  sagt,  als  was  im  Buche  steht; 
Doch  euch  des  Schreibens  ja  befleisst, 
Als  dictirt'  euch  der  Heilig'  Geist ! 

The  simple-minded  student  assents  to  this  counsel,  and  says 
it  is  a  great  comfort  to  have  everything  in  black  and  white, 
so  that  he  can  carry  it  all  home.  But  no  scrap-book  of  facts 
can  give  wisdom,  any  more  than  a  tank  of  water  can  form 
a  running  spring.  It  is,  perhaps,  of  as  much  consequence  to 
teach  a  young  person  how  to  study  history  as  to  teach  him 
history  itself. 

The  above  notes  were  written  in  the  summer  of  1879,  and 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  121 

were  published  in  October  of  that  year,  after  the  author's 
return  to  Baltimore.  Subsequent  experience  at  Smith  Col- 
lege, in  the  spring  terms  of  1880  and  1881,  when  the  lec- 
turer's four  years'  partial  connection  with  Smith  College 
terminated,  showed  the  necessity  of  a  reference  library 
for  each  class,  the  resources  of  the  main  collection  in  the 
reading-room  having  proved  inadequate  to  the  growing  his- 
torical needs  of  the  college.  Instead  of  buying  text-books, 
the  members  of  each  class,  with  the  mone}'  which  text-books 
would  have  cost,  formed  a  library  fund,  from  which  a  book 
committee  purchased  such  standard  works  (often  with  du- 
plicate copies)  as  the  lecturer  recommended.  The  class  libra- 
ries were  kept  in  places  generally  accessible ;  for  example, 
in  the  front  halls  of  the  "  cottage  "  dormitories.  Each  class 
had  its  own  system  of  rules  for  library  administration. 
Books  that  were  in  greatest  demand  could  be  kept  out  only 
one  or  two  da3-s.  The  amount  of  reading  by  special  topics 
accomplished  in  this  way  in  a  single  term  was  really  most 
remarkable.  Note-books  with  abstracts  of  daily  work  weie 
kept,  and  finally  handed  in  as  a  part  of  the  term's  examina- 
tion. Oral  examinations  upon  reading,  pursued  in  connection 
with  the  lectures,  were  maintained  throughout  the  term,  and, 
at  the  close,  a  written  examination  upon  the  lectures  and 
other  required  topics,  together  with  a  certain  range  of  optional 
subjects,  fairly  tested  the  results  of  this  voluntary  method 
of  historical  study.  The  amount  of  knowledge  acquired  in 
this  way  would  as  much  surpass  the  substance  of  any  system 
of  lectures  or  any  mere  text-book  acquisitions  as  a  class 
library  of  standard  historians  surpasses  an  individual  teacher 
or  any  historical  manual.  This  method  of  study  is  practi- 
cable in  any  high-school  class  of  moderate  size.  If  classes 
are  generous,  they  will  leave  their  libraries  to  successors, 
who  can  thus  build  up  a  collection  for  historical  reference 


122  SPECIAL   METHODS   OF 

within  the  school  itself,  which  will  thus  become  a  seminary 
of  living  science. 

A  development  of  the  above  idea  of  special  libraries  for 
class  use  was  the  foundation  in  Baltimore,  at  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  in  1881-2,  of  a  special  library  for  the  study  of 
American  Institutional  History  by  college  graduates.  There 
was  nothing  really  new  about  the  idea  except  its  application. 
German  universities  have  their  seminar  ium  libraries  distinct 
from  the  main  university  library,  although  often  in  the  same 
building.  In  Baltimore  the  special  library  was  established 
in  the  lecture-room  where  the  class  meets.  The  design  of 
the  collection  was  to  gather  within  easy  reach  the  chief 
authorities  used  in  class  work  and  in  such  original  investiga- 
tions as  were  then  in  progress.  The  special  aim,  however, 
was  to  bring  together  the  statutory  law  and  colonial  archives 
of  the  older  States  of  the  Union,  together  with  the  journals 
of  Congress,  American  State  papers,  and  the  writings  and 
lives  of  American  statesmen.  The  statutes  of  England  and 
parliamentary  reports  on  subjects  of  particular  interest  were 
next  secured.  Then  followed,  in  December,  1882,  the  acqui- 
sition of  the  Bluntschli  Library  of  three  thousand  volumes, 
with  man}*  rare  pamphlets  and  Bluntschli's  manuscripts,  in- 
cluding his  notes  taken  under  Niebuhr  the  historian,  and 
under  Savigny  the  jurist.  This  librarj-  of  the  lamented  Dr. 
Bluntschli,  professor  of  constitutional  and  international  law 
in  Heidelberg,  was  presented  to  the  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity by  German  citizens  of  Baltimore  ;  and  it  represents,  not 
only  in  its  transfer  to  America,  but  in  its  very  constitution, 
the  internationality  of  modern  science.  Here  is  a  library, 
which,  under  the  care  of  a  great  master,  developed  from  the 
narrow  chronicles  of  a  Swiss  town  and  canton  into  a  library 
of  cosmopolitan  character,  embracing  many  nations  in  its 
scope.  Into  this  inheritance  the  Seminary  Library  of  Ameri- 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  123 

can  Institutional  History  has  now  entered.  Although  the 
special  work  of  the  Seminary  will  still  be  directed  toward 
American  themes,  yet  it  will  be  from  the  vantage-ground  of 
the  Bluntschli  Library,  and  with  the  knowledge  that  this 
great  collection  was  the  outgrowth  of  communal  studies 
similar  to  those  now  in  progress  in  Baltimore. 

A  word  may  be  added  in  this  connection  touching  the  nature 
of  graduate-work  in  history  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
What  was  said  in  the  early  part  of  this  article  applied  only 
to  undergraduates,  who  develop  into  the  very  best  class  of 
graduate  students  now  present  at  the  Universit}7.  The  idea 
of  a  co-operative  study  of  American  local  institutions,  by 
graduate  students  representing  different  sections  of  country, 
evolved  very  naturally  from  the  Baltimore  environment.  Ger- 
minant  interest  in  the  subject  originated  in  a  study  of  New 
England  towns,  in  a  spring  sojourn  for  four  j'ears  at  Smith 
College,  Northampton,  Mass.,  and  in  summer  tours  along  the 
New  England  coast ;  but  the  development  of  this  interest  was 
made  possible  by  associations  in  Baltimore  with  men  from 
the  South  and  the  West,  who  were  able  and  willing  to  describe 
the  institutions  of  their  own  States  for  purposes  of  compari- 
son with  the  institutions  of  other  States.  Thus  it  has  come 
about  that  the  parishes,  districts,  and  counties  of  Maryland, 
Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas  are  placed  historically  side  by 
side  with  the  townships  of  the  West  and  the  towns  and  par- 
ishes of  New  England ;  so  that,  by  and  by,  all  men  will  see 
how  much  these  different  sections  have  in  common. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  subjects  pertaining  to  American 
local  life  in  its  rural  and  municipal  manifestations.  Not  only 
the  history  of  local  government,  but  the  history  of  schools, 
churches,  charities,  manufactures,  industries,  prices,  eco- 
nomics, municipal  protection,  municipal  reforms,  local  taxa- 
tion, representation,  administration,  poor  laws,  liquor  laws, 


124  SPECIAL    METHODS    OF 

labor  laws,  and  a  thousand  and  one  chapters  of  legal  and 
social  history  are  yet  to  be  written  in  every  State.  Johns 
Hopkins  students  have  selected  only  a  few  topics  like 
towns,  parishes,  manors,  certain  state  systems  of  free  schools, 
a  few  phases  of  city  government,  a  few  French  and  Indian 
villages  in  the  North-west,  certain  territorial  institutions,  Can- 
adian feudalism,  the  town  institutions  of  New  England  (to  a 
limited  extent)  ;  but  there  is  left  historical  territory  enough 
for  student  immigration  throughout  the  next  hundred  years. 
The  beauty  of  science  is  that  there  are  always  new  worlds 
to  discover.  And  at  the  present  moment  there  await  the 
student  pioneer  vast  tracts  of  American  institutional  and 
economic  history  almost  as  untouched  as  were  once  the  for- 
ests of  America,  her  coal  measures  and  prairies,  her  mines 
of  iron,  silver,  and  gold.  Individual  and  local  effort  will 
almost  everywhere  meet  with  quick  recognition  and  grate- 
ful returns.  But  scientific  and  cosmopolitan  relations  with 
college  and  university  centres,  together  with  the  generous 
co-operation  of  all  explorers  in  the  same  field,  will  certainly 
yield  the  most  satisfactory  results  both  to  the  individual  and 
to  the  community  which  he  represents. 

It  is  highly  important  that  isolated  students  who  desire  to 
co-operate  in  this  kind  of  work  should  avail  themselves  of  the 
existing  machinery  of  local  libraries,  the  local  press,  local 
societies,  and  local  clubs.  If  such  things  do  not  exist,  the 
most  needful  should  be  created.  No  community  is  too  small 
for  a  book  club  and  for  an  association  of  some  sort.  Local 
studies  should  alwa3-s  be  connected  in  some  way  with  the  life 
of  the  community,  and  should  always  be  used  to  quicken  that 
life  to  higher  consciousness.  A  student,  a  teacher,  who  pre- 
pares a  paper  on  local  history  or  some  social  question,  should 
read  it  before  the  village  lyceum  or  some  literary  club  or  an 
association  of  teachers.  If  encouraged  to  believe  his  work 


HISTORICAL  STUDY.  125 

of  any  general  interest  or  permanent  value,  he  should  print 
it  in  the  local  paper  or  in  a  local  magazine,  perhaps  an  edu- 
cational journal,  without  aspiring  to  the  highest  popular 
monthlies,  which  will  certainly  reject  all  purely  local  contri- 
butions by  unknown  contributors.  It  is  far  more  practicable 
to  publish  by  local  aid  in  pamphlet  form  or  in  the  proceed- 
ings of  associations  and  learned  societies,  before  which  such 
papers  may  sometimes  be  read. 

From  a  variety  of  considerations,  the  writer  is  persuaded 
that  one  of  the  best  introductions  to  history  that  can  be  given 
in  American  high  schools,  and  even  in  those  of  lower  grade, 
is  through  a  study  of  the  community  in  which  the  school  is 
placed.  Histor}-,  like  charity,  begins  at  home.  The  best 
American  citizens  are  those  who  mind  home  affairs  and  local 
interests.  "  That  man's  the  best  cosmopolite  who  loves  his 
native  country  best."  The  best  students  of  universal  history 
are  those  who  know  some  one  country  or  some  one  subject 
well.  The  family,  the  hamlet,  the  neighborhood,  the  com- 
munity, the  parish,  the  village,  town,  city,  county,  and  state 
are  historically  the  ways  by  which  men  have  approached 
national  and  international  life.  It  was  a  preliminary  study 
of  the  geography  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main  that  led  Carl 
Ritter  to  study  the  physical  structure  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  thus  to  establish  the  new  science  of  comparative  geog- 
raphy. He  says  :  "  Whoever  has  wandered  through  the  val- 
leys and  woods,  and  over  the  hills  and  mountains  of  his  own 
state,  will  be  the  one  capable  of  following  a  Herodotus  in  his 
wanderings  over  the  globe."  And  we  may  say,  as  Ritter 
said  of  the  science  of  geography,  the  first  step  in  history  is 
to  know  thoroughly  the  district  where  we  live.  In  America, 
Guyot  has  represented  for  many  years  this  method  of  teach- 
ing geography.  Huxley,  in  his  Physiography,  has  introduced 
pupils  to  a  study  of  Nature  as  a  whole,  by  calling  attention 


126  SPECIAL   METHODS   OP 

to  the  physical  features  of  the  Thames  valley  and  the  wide 
range  of  natural  phenomena  that  may  be  observed  in  any 
English  parish.  Humboldt  long  ago  said  in  his  Cosmos  : 
"Every  little  nook  and  shaded  corner  is  but  a  reflection  of 
the  whole  of  Nature."  There  is  something  very  suggestive 
and  very  quickening  in  such  a  philosophy  of  Nature  and  his- 
tory as  regards  every  spot  of  the  earth's  surface,  every 
pebble,  every  form  of  organic  life,  from  the  lowest  mollusk 
to  the  highest  phase  of  human  society,  as  a  perfect  micro- 
cosm, perhaps  an  undiscovered  world  of  suggestive  truth. 
But  it  is  important  to  remember  that  all  these  things  should 
be  studied  in  their  widest  relations.  Natural  history  is  of 
no  significance  if  viewed  apart  from  Man.  Human  history  is 
without  foundation  if  separated  from  Nature.  The  deeds  of 
men,  the  genealogy  of  families,  the  annals  of  quiet  neigh- 
borhoods, the  records  of  towns,  states,  and  nations  are  per  se 
of  little  consequence  to  history  unless  in  some  way  these 
isolated  things  are  brought  into  vital  connection  with  the 
progress  and  science  of  the  world.  To  establish  such  con- 
nections is  sometimes  like  the  discovery  of  unknown  lands, 
the  exploration  of  new  countries,  and  the  widening  of  the 
world's  horizon. 

American  local  history  should  first  be  studied  as  a  contri- 
bution to  national  history.  This  country  will  yet  be  viewed 
and  reviewed  as  an  organism  of  historic  growth,  developing 
from  minute  germs,  from  the  very  protoplasm  of  state  life. 
And  some  day  this  country  will  be  studied  in  its  international 
relations,  as  an  organic  part  of  a  larger  organism  now 
vaguely  called  the  "World  State,  but  as  surely  developing 
through  the  operation  of  economic,  legal,  social,  and  scien- 
tific forces  as  the  American  Union,  the  German  and  British 
Empires  are  evolving  into  higher  forms.  American  his- 
tory in  its  widest  relations  is  not  to  be  written  by  any  one 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  127 

man  nor  by  any  one  generation  of  men.  Our  history  will 
grow  with  the  nation  and  with  its  developing  consciousness 
of  internationally.  The  present  possibilities  for  the  real 
progress  of  historic  and  economic  science  lie,  first  and  fore- 
most, in  the  development  of  a  generation  of  economists  and 
practical  historians,  who  realize  that  history  is  past  politics 
and  politics  present  histor}- ;  secondly,  in  the  expansion  of 
the  local  consciousness  into  a  fuller  sense  of  its  historic  worth 
and  dignity,  of  the  cosmopolitan  relations  of  modern  local 
life,  and  of  its  own  wholesome  conservative  power  in  these 
days  of  growing  centralization.  National  and  international 
life  can  best  develop  upon  the  constitutional  basis  of  local 
self-government  in  church  and  state. 

The  work  of  developing  a  generation  of  specialists  has 
already  begun  in  the  college  and  the  university.  The  devel- 
opment of  local  consciousness  can  perhaps  be  best  stimulated 
through  the  common  school.  It  ma}'  be  a  suggestive  fact 
that  the  school  committee  of  Great  Barrington,  Mass.,  lately 
voted  (Berkshire  Courier,  Sept.  6,  1882)  to  introduce  into 
their  village  high  school,1  in  the  hands  of  an  Amherst  grad- 
uate, in  connection  with  Nordhoff's  "  Politics  for  Young 
Americans"  and  Jevons'  "Primer  of  Political  Economy," 
the  article  upon  l '  The  Germanic  Origin  of  New  England 
Towns,"  which  was  once  read  in  part  before  the  Village 
Improvement  Society  of  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1881, 
and  published  in  the  Pittsfield  Evening  Journal  of  that  day. 
Local  demand  really  occasioned  a  university  supply  of  the 
article2  in  question.  The  possible  connection  between  the 

1  The  catalogue  of  the  Great  Barrington  High  School  (1882)  shows  that 
the  study  of  history  and  politics  is  there  founded,  as  it  should  be,  upon  a 
geographical  basis. 

2  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in  Historical  and  Political  Science, 
II     "  The  Germanic  Ori.gin  of  Xew  England  Towns."    (Now  out  of  print 
tS'84.) 


128  SPECIAL   METHODS    OF 

college  and  the  common  school  is  still  better  illustrated  by 
the  case  of  Professor  Macy,  of  Iowa  College,  Grinnell,  who 
is  one  of  the  most  active  pioneers  in  teaching  "  the  real 
homely  facts  of  government,"  and  who  in  1881  published  a 
little  tract  on  Civil  Government  in  Iowa,  which  is  now  used 
by  teachers  throughout  that  entire  State  in  preparing  their 
oral  instructions  for  young  pupils,  beginning  with  the  town- 
ship and  the  county,  the  institutions  that  are  "nearest  and 
most  easily  learned."  A  special  pupil  of  Professor  Macy's 
—  Albert  Shaw,  A.B.,  Iowa  College,  1879  —  is  now  writing 
a  similar  treatise  on  Civil  Government  in  Illinois,  for  school 
use  in  that  State.  There  should  be  such  a  manual  for  every 
State  in  the  Union. 

But  the  writer  would  like  to  see  a  text-book  which  not  only 
explains,  as  does  Principal  Macy,  "  the  real  homely  facts  of 
government,"  but  which  also  suggests  how  those  facts  came 
to  be.  A  study  of  the  practical  workings  of  local  govern- 
ment and  of  the  American  Constitution  is  the  study  of  poli- 
tics which  every  young  American  ought  to  pursue.  But  r. 
study  of  the  origin  and  development  of  American  institutions 
is  a  study  of  history  in  one  of  its  most  important  branches. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  young  Americans  should  grapple  with 
"the  Constitution"  at  the  very  outset.  Their  forefathers 
put  their  energies  into  the  founding  of  villages,  towns,  and 
plantations  before  they  thought  of  American  independence. 
Their  first  country  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  was  the  colony ; 
in  some  instances,  the  county.  It  is  not  unworthy  of  sons 
to  study  the  historic  work  of  fathers  who  constructed  a  nation 
upon  the  solid  rock  of  local  self-government  in  church  and 
state. 

If  young  Americans  are  to  appreciate  their  religious  and 
political  inheritance,  they  must  learn  its  intrinsic  worth. 
They  must  be  taught  to  appreciate  the  common  and  lowly 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  129 

things  around  them.  They  should  grow  up  with  as  profound 
respect  for  town  and  parish  meetings  as  for  the  State  legis- 
lature, not  to  speak  of  the  Houses  of  Congress.  They  should 
recognize  the  majesty  of  the  law,  even  in  the  parish  constable 
as  well  as  in  the  high  sheriff  of  the  count}'.  They  should 
look  on  selectmen  as  the  head  men  of  the  town,  the  survival 
of  the  old  English  reeve  and  four  best  men  of  the  parish. 
They  should  be  taught  to  see  in  the  town  common  or  village 
green  a  survival  of  that  primitive  institution  of  land-com- 
munity upon  which  town  and  state  are  based.  They  should 
be  taught  the  meaning  of  town  and  family  names ;  how  the 
word  "town"  means,  primarily,  a  place  hedged  in  for  pur- 
poses of  defence ;  how  the  picket-fences  around  home  and 
house-lot  are  but  a  survival  of  the  primitive  town  idea ;  how 
/tome,  hamlet,  and  town  live  on  together  in  a  name  like 
Hampton,  or  Home-town.  They  should  investigate  the  most 
ordinary  things,  for  these  are  often  the  most  archaic.  For 
example,  there  is  the  village  pound,  which  Sir  Henry  Maine 
says  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  institutions,  "older  than  the 
king's  bench,  and  probably  older  than  the  kingdom."  There, 
too,  are  the  field-drivers  (still  known  in  New  England) ,  the 
ancient  town  herdsmen,  village  shepherds,  and  village  swine- 
herds (once  common  in  this  country) ,  who  serve  to  connect 
our  historic  life  with  the  earliest  pastoral  beginnings  of 
mankind. 

It  would  certainly  be  an  excellent  thing  for  the  develop- 
ment of  historical  science  in  America  if  teachers  in  our  pub- 
lic schools  would  cultivate  the  historical  spirit  in  their  pupils 
with  special  reference  to  the  local  environment.  Something 
more  than  local  history  can  be  drawn  from  such  sources. 
Take  the  Indian  relics,  the  arrow-heads  which  a  boy  has 
found  in  his  father's  field  or  which  ma}1  have  been  given  him 
by  some  antiquary :  here  are  texts  for  familiar  talks  by  the 


130  SPECIAL   METHODS    OF 

teacher  upon  the  "Stone  Age"  and  the  progress  of  the 
world  from  savage  beginnings.  Indian  names  still  linger 
upon  our  landscapes,  upon  our  mountains,  rivers,  fields,  and 
meadows,  affording  a  suggestive  parallel  between  the  "exter- 
minated "  natives  of  England  and  New  England.  What  a 
quickening  impulse  could  be  given  to  a  class  of  bright  pupils 
by  a  visit  to  some  scene  of  ancient  conflict  with  the  Indians, 
like  that  at  Blood}1  Brook  in  South  Deerfield,  Mass.,  or  to 
such  an  interesting  local  museum  as  that  in  Old  Deerfield, 
where  is  exhibited,  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  the  door 
of  an  early  settler's  house,  —  a  door  cut  through  by  Indian 
tomahawks.  A  multitude  of  historical  associations  gather 
around  every  old  town  and  hamlet  in  the  land. 

There  are  local  legends  and  traditions,  household  talcs, 
stories  told  by  grandfathers  and  grandmothers,  incidents 
remembered  by  "the  oldest  inhabitants."  But  above  all  in 
importance  are  the  old  documents  and  manuscript  records  of 
the  first  settlers,  the  early  pioneers,  the  founders  of  our 
towns.  Here  are  sources  of  information  more  authentic  than 
tradition,  and  yet  often  entirely  neglected.  If  teachers  would 
simply  make  a  few  extracts  from  these  unpublished  records, 
they  would  soon  have  sufficient  materials  in  their  hands  for 
elucidating  local  history  to  their  pupils  and  fellow-townsmen. 
The  publication  of  such  extracts  in  the  local  paper  is  one  o* 
the  best  ways  to  quicken  local  interest  in  matters  of  history. 
Biographies  of  "the  first  families,"  of  the  various  ministers, 
doctors,  lawyers,  "Squires,"  "Generals,"  "Colonels," 
college  graduates,  school-teachei's,  and  leading  citizens,  — 
these  are  all  legitimate  and  pleasant  means  of  kindling  his- 
torical interest  in  the  community  and  in  the  schools.  The 
town  fathers,  the  fathers  of  families,  and  all  their  sons  and 
daughters  will  quickly  catch  the  bearings  of  this  kind  of  his- 
torical study,  for  it  takes  hold  upon  the  life  of  the  community 


HISTORICAL,   STUDY.  131 

and  quickens  not  only  pride  in  the  past  but  hope  for  the 
future. 

In  order  to  study  history  it  is  not  necessary  to  begin  with 
dead  men's  bones,  with  Theban  dynasties,  the  kings  of 
Assyria,  the  royal  families  of  Europe,  or  even  with  the  presi- 
dents of  the  United  States.  These  subjects  have  their  im- 
portance in  certain  connections,  but  for  beginners  in  history 
there  are  perhaps  other  subjects  of  greater  interest  and  vital- 
ity. The  most  natural  entrance  to  a  knowledge  of  the  history 
of  the  world  is  from  a  local  environment  through  widening 
circles  of  interest,  until,  from  the  rising  ground  of  the  pres- 
ent, the  broad  horizon  of  the  past  comes  clearly  into  view. 
There  is  hardly  a  subject  of  contemporary  interest  which,  if 
properly  studied,  will  not  carry  the  mind  back  to  a  remote 
antiquity,  to  historic  relations  as  wide  as  the  world  itself.  A 
stud}'  of  the  community  in  which  the  student  dwells  will 
serve  to  connect  that  community  not  only  with  the  origin 
and  growth  of  the  State  and  Nation,  but  with  the  mother- 
countr}-,  with  the  German  fatherland,  with  village  commu- 
nities throughout  the  Aryan  world, — from  German}^  and 
Russia  to  old  Greece  and  Rome  ;  from  these  classic  lands  to 
Persia  and  India.  Such  modern  connections  with  the  dis- 
tant Orient  are  more  refreshing  than  the  genealogy  of  Darius 
the  son  of  Hystaspes. 

I  would  not  be  understood  as  disparaging  ancient  or  old- 
world  history,  for,  if  rightly  taught,  this  is  the  most  interesting 
of  all  history  ;  but  I  would  be  understood  as  emphasizing  the 
importance  of  studying  the  antiquity  which  survives  in  the 
present  and  in  this  country.  America  is  not  such  a  new 
world  as  it  seems  to  man}-  foreigners.  Geologists  tell  us 
that  our  continent  is  the  oldest  of  all.  Historians  like  Mr. 
Freeman  declare  that  if  we  want  to  see  Old  England  we  must 
go  to  New  England.  Old  France  survives  in  French  Canada. 


132  SPECIAL   METHODS   OF 

In  Virginia,  peculiarities  of  the  West  Saxon  dialect  are 
still  preserved.  Professor  James  A.  Harrison,  of  Lexing- 
ton, Virginia,  writes  me  that  in  Louisiana  and  Mississippi, 
where  upon  old  French  and  Spanish  settlements  the  English 
finally  planted,  there  are  "  sometimes  three  traditions  super- 
imposed one  on  the  other. ' '  Men  like  George  W.  Cable  and 
Charles  Grayarr6  have  been  mining  to  good  advantage  in 
such  historic  strata.  If  American  students  and  teachers  are 
equally  wise,  they  will  look  about  their  own  homes  before 
visiting  the  land  of  Chaldaea. 

The  main  difficult}'  with  existing  methods  of  teaching  his- 
tory seems  to  be  that  the  subject  is  treated  as  a  record  of 
dead  facts,  and  not  as  a  living  science.  Pupils  fail  to  realize 
the  vital  connection  between  the  past  and  the  present ;  they 
do  not  understand  that  ancient  history  was  the  dawn  of  a 
light  which  is  still  shining  on  ;  they  do  not  grasp  the  essen- 
tial idea  of  history,  which  is  the  growing  self-knowledge  of  a 
living,  progressive  age.  Etymologically  and  practically,  the 
study  of  history  is  simply  a  learning  by  inquiry.  According 
to  Professor  Droysen,  who  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  histo- 
rians in  Berlin,  the  historical  method  is  merely  to  understand 
by  means  of  research.  Now  it  seems  entirely  practicable  for 
eveiy  teacher  and  student  of  history  to  promote,  in  a  limited 
way,  the  "  know  thyself  "  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  orig- 
inal investigation  of  things  not  yet  full}'  known,  and  by  com- 
municating to  others  the  results  of  his  individual  study. 
The  pursuit  of  history  may  thus  become  an  active  instead  of 
a  passive  process,  —  an  increasing  joy  instead  of  a  depressing 
burden.  Students  will  thus  learn  that  history  is  not  entirely 
bound  up  in  text-books ;  that  it  does  not  consist  altogether 
in  what  this  or  that  learned  authority  has  to  say  about  the 
world.  What  the  world  believes  concerning  itself,  after  all  that 
men  have  written,  and  what  the  student  thinks  of  the  world, 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  133 

after  viewing  it  with  the  aid  of  guide-books  and  with  his  own 
eyes, — these  are  matters  of  some  moment  in  the  developmental 
process  of  that  active  self-knowledge  and  philosophic  reflec- 
tion which  make  history  a  living  science  instead  of  a  museum 
of  facts  and  of  books  "as  dry  as  dust."  Works  of  history, 
the  so-called  standard  authorities,  are  likely  to  become  dead 
specimens  of  humanity  unless  they  continue  in  some  way  to 
quicken  the  living  age.  But  written  history  seldom  fails 
to  accomplish  this  end,  and  even  antiquated  works  often  con- 
tinue their  influence  if  viewed  as  progressive  phases  of  human 
self-knowledge.  Monuments  and  inscriptions  can  never  grow 
old  so  long  as  the  race  is  young.  New  meaning  is  put  into 
ancient  records  ;  fresh  garlands  are  hung  upon  broken  statues  ; 
new  temples  are  built  from  classic  materials  ;  and  the  world 
rejoices  at  its  constant  self-renewal. 


Since  the  publication  of  the  foregoing  pages,  in  the  first  edition  of 
this  book,  I  have  elsewhere  described,  in  greater  detail,  certain  special 
methods  of  historical  study.  The  following  abstract  is  taken  from  the 
"Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in  Historical  and  Political  Science," 
Second  Series,  Numbers  I.  and  II.  "Methods  of  Historical  Study," 
page  137 :  — 

1.  The  Topical  Method.  —  If  there  is  any  guiding  prin- 
ciple in  the  study  of  historical  as  well  as  of  natural  science, 
it  is  "The  way  to  that  which  is  general  is  through  that 
which  is  special."  It  makes  little  difference  with  what  class 
of  facts  the  student  begins,  provided  they  are  not  too  com- 
plex for  easy  apprehension.  The  point  is  that  universal 
history  may  be  approached  in  a  great  variety  of  special 
ways,  any  one  of  which  may  be  as  good  as  another.  They  are 
like  the  Brahminical  philosopher's  idea  of  different  religious 
revelations,  —  gates  leading  into  the  same  city.  All  roads 


134  SPECIAL   METHODS   OF 

lead  to  Rome,  and  all  roads  lead  to  history.  But  while  this 
general  truth  remains,  it  also  remains  true  that  there  is  a 
certain  practical  advantage  in  beginning  historical  study  with 
that  which  is  nearest  and  most  familiar.  A  man's  own 
family,  community,  country,  and  race,  are  the  most  natural 
objects  of  historical  interest,  because  man  is  born  into  such 
associations,  and  because  an  historical  knowledge  of  them 
will  always  be  the  most  valuable  form  of  historical  culture, 
for  these  subjects  most  concern  our  own  life,  our  past,  pres- 
ent, and  future.  In  history,  as  in  biology,  live  specimens 
are  usually  better  than  dead  ones.  Life  is  of  supreme 
interest  to  history,  as  it  is  to  biology  ;  hence  those  nations 
and  men  that  have  made  the  present  what  it  is  will  always 
be  the  best  topics  for  historical  study. 

I  should  be  inclined  to  recommend,  in  beginning  the  study 
of  history  by  any  special  method  of  approach,  like  the  his- 
tory of  America  or  the  history  of  Egypt,  that  teacher  and 
class  begin  work  upon  the  geography  of  the  United  States, 
or  of  the  Nile  valley.  Then,  after  a  thorough  consideration 
of  the  lay  of  the  land,  comes  naturally  the  topic  of  the 
people,  the  first  inhabitants.  After  the  topics  of  a  chosen 
land  and  of  a  chosen  people  should  come  the  subject  of  the 
sources  of  that  people's  history.  "What  memorials  of  them- 
selves have  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  America  or  of 
Egypt  left  behind  them  ?  It  is  of  great  importance  in  the 
pedagogical  process  of  teaching  history  that  the  student 
should  learn  the  origin  of  written  history,  how  manuals  and 
standard  histories  are  constructed ;  otherwise,  the  student 
will  look  upon  the  book  or  manual  as  a  final  authority.  He 
should,  on  the  contrary,  look  at  all  written  history  as  simply 
a  current,  more  or  less  colored  by  human  prejudice,  a  cur- 
rent which  has  come  down,  like  the  Nile  or  the  Mississippi, 
from  some  higher  and  more  original  source  than  the  passing 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  135 

stream.  Such  a  consciousness  leads  the  student  to  further 
inquiry,  to  a  habit  of  mind  like  that  of  explorers  who  sought 
the  sources  of  the  Nile  or  of  the  Congo. 

Professor  Moses  Coit  Tyler,  of  Cornell  University,  has 
prepared  the  following  brief  account  of  a  special  class- 
course,  which  admirably  illustrates  the  topical  method : 
"  Perhaps  it  may  be  a  peculiarity  in  my  work  as  a  teacher 
of  History  here  that  I  am  permitted  to  give  my  whole  atten- 
tion to  American  history.  At  an}'  rate,  this  fact  enables 
me  to  organize  the  work  of  American  history  so  as  to  cover, 
more  perfectly  than  I  could  otherwise  do,  the  whole  field, 
from  the  prehistoric  times  of  this  continent  down  to  the 
present,  with  a  minuteness  of  attention  varying,  of  course, 
as  the  importance  of  the  particular  topic  varies.  I  confess 
that  I  adopt  for  American  history  the  principle  which  Pro- 
fessor Seeley,  of  Cambridge,  is  fond  of  applying  to  English 
history,  namely,  that  while  history  should  be  thoroughl}- 
scientific  in  its  method,  its  object  should  be  practical.  To 
this  extent  I  believe  in  history  with  a  tendency.  My  in- 
terest in  our  own  past  is  chiefly  derived  from  my  interest  in 
our  own  present  and  future  ;  and  I  teach  American  history, 
not  so  much  to  make  historians  as  to  make  citizens  and  good 
leaders  for  the  State  and  the  Nation.  From  this  point  of 
view,  I  decide  upon  the  selection  of  historical  topics  for 
special  study.  At  present  I  should  describe  them  as  the 
following :  The  native  races,  especially  the  Mound-builders 
and  the  North-American  Indians  ;  the  alleged  Pre-Colum- 
bian discoveries  ;  the  origin  and  enforcement  of  England's 
claim  to  North  America,  as  against  competing  European 
nations ;  the  motives  and  methods  of  English  colony-plant- 
ing in  America  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  ; 
the  development  of  ideas  and  institutions  in  the  American 
colonies,  with  particular  reference  to  religion,  education, 


136  SPECIAL   METHODS   OF 

industry,  and  civil  freedom ;  the  grounds  of  inter-colonial 
isolation  and  of  inter-colonial  fellowship  ;  the  causes  and 
progress  of  the  movement  for  colonial  independence  ;  the 
history  of  the  formation  of  the  national  constitution  ;  the 
origin  and  growth  of  political  parties  under  the  constitution ; 
the  history  of  slavery  as  a  factor  in  American  politics,  cul- 
minating in  the  civil  war  of  1861-65.  On  all  these  subjects, 
I  try  to  generate  and  preserve  in  myself  and  my  pupils  such 
an  anxiety  for  the  truth,  that  we  shall  prefer  it  even  to 
national  traditions  or  the  idolatries  of  party. 

"  As  to  methods  of  work,  I  doubt  if  I  have  anything  to 
report  that  is  peculiar  to  myself,  or  different  from  the  usage 
of  all  teachers  who  try  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times.  I  am 
an  eclectic.  I  have  tried  to  learn  all  the  current  ways  of 
doing  this  work,  and  have  appropriated  what  I  thought  best 
suited  to  our  own  circumstances.  As  I  have  students  of  all 
grades,  so  my  methods  of  work  include  the  recitation,  the 
lecture,  and  the  seminary.  I  have  found  it  impossible  by 
the  two  former  to  keep  my  students  from  settling  into  a 
merely  passive  attitude ;  it  is  only  by  the  latter  that  I  can 
get  them  into  an  attitude  that  is  inquisitive,  eager,  critical, 
originating.  My  notion  is  that  the  lecturing  must  be  recip- 
rocal. As  I  lecture  to  them,  so  must  they  lecture  to  me. 

"  We  are  all  students  and  all  lecturers.  The  law  of  life 
with  us  is  co-operation  in  the  search  after  the  truth  of  his- 
tory." 

2.  The  Comparative  Method. — A  great  impulse  was  given 
to  the  historical  sciences  by  the  introduction  of  the  compara- 
tive method  into  the  study  of  philology,  mythology,  religion, 
law,  and  institutions.  It  seemed  as  though  the  horizon  of 
all  these  fields  suddenly  widened,  and  as  if  the  world  of 
human  thought  and  research  were  expanding  into  new 
realms.  "Before  the  great  discoveries  of  modern  science," 


HISTORICAL  STUDY.  137 

says  Freeman,  "before  that  greatest  of  all  its  discoveries 
which  has  revealed  to  us  the  unity  of  Aryan  speech,  of 
Aryan  religion,  and  Aryan  political  life,  the  worn-out  super- 
stitions about  'ancient'  and  '  modern'  ought  to  pass  by  like 
the  spectres  of  darkness.  .  .  .  The  range  of  our  political 
vision  becomes  wider  when  the  application  of  the  compara- 
tive method  sets  before  us  the  ekklesia  of  Athens,  the  comi- 
tia  of  Rome,  as  institutions,  not  merely  analogous,  but 
absolutely  the  same  thing,  parts  of  the  same  common  Aryan 
heritage,  as  the  ancient  assemblies  of  our  own  land.  We 
carry  on  the  tale  as  we  see  that  it  is  out  of  those  assemblies 
that  our  modern  parliaments,  our  modern  courts  of  justice, 
our  modern  public  gatherings  of  every  kind,  have  grown." 
("  On  the  Study  of  History,"  Fortnightly  Review,  March  1, 
1881.) 

It  would  be  a  fine  thing  for  American  students,  if,  in 
studying  special  topics  in  the  history  of  their  own  country, 
they  would  occasionally  compare  the  phases  of  historic  truth 
here  discovered  with  similar  phases  of  discovery  elsewhere ; 
if,  for  example,  the  colonial  beginnings  of  North  America 
should  be  compared  with  Aryan  migrations  westward  into 
Greece  and  Italy,  or  again  with  the  colonial  systems  of 
Greece  and  of  the  Roman  Empire,  or  of  the  English  Empire 
to-day,  which  is  continuing  in  South  Africa  and  Australia 
and  in  Manitoba,  the  same  old  spirit  of  enterprise  which 
colonized  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  North  America.  It 
would  interest  young  minds  to  have  parallels  drawn  between 
English  colonies,  Grecian  commonwealths,  Roman  prov- 
inces, the  United  Cantons  of  Switzerland,  and  the  United 
States  of  Holland.  To  be  sure,  these  various  topics  would 
require  considerable  study  on  the  part  of  teacher  and  pupil, 
but  the  fathers  of  the  American  constitution,  Madison, 
Hamilton,  and  others,  went  over  such  ground  in  preparing 
the  platform  of  our  present  federal  government. 


138  SPECIAL   METHODS   OF 

But  my  special  plea  is  for  the  application  of  the  compara- 
tive method  to  the  use  of  historical  literature.  Students 
should  learn  to  view  history  in  different  lights  and  from 
various  standpoints.  Instead  of  relying  passively  upon  the 
ipse  dixit  of  the  school-master,  or  of  the  school-book,  or  of 
some  one  historian,  pupils  should  learn  to  judge  for  them- 
selves by  comparing  evidence.  Of  course  some  discretion 
should  be  exercised  by  the  teacher  in  the  case  of  young 
pupils ;  but  even  children  are  attracted  by  different  ver- 
sions of  the  same  tale  or  legend,  and  catch  at  new  points  of 
interest  with  all  the  eagerness  of  original  investigators. 
The  scattered  elements  of  fact  or  tradition  should  be  brought 
together  as  children  piece  together  the  scattered  blocks  of  a 
map.  The  criterion  of  all  truth,  as  well  as  of  all  art,  is 
fitness.  Comparison  of  different  accounts  of  the  same  his- 
toric event  would  no  more  injure  boys  and  girls  than  would 
a  comparative  study  of  the  four  gospels.  On  the  contrary, 
such  comparisons  strengthen  the  judgment,  and  give  it 
greater  independence  and  stabilit3'.  In  teaching  history, 
altogether  too  much  stress  has  been  laid,  in  many  of  our 
schools,  upon  mere  forms  of  verbal  expression  in  the  text- 
book, as  though  historic  truth  consisted  in  the  repetition  of 
what  some  author  had  said.  It  would  be  far  better  for  the 
student  to  read  the  same  story  in  several  different  forms, 
and  then  to  give  his  own  version.  The  latter  process  would 
be  an  independent  historical  view  based  upon  a  variety  of 
evidence.  The  memorizing  of  "words,  words,"  prevents 
the  assimilation  of  facts,  and  clogs  the  mental  processes  of 
reflection  and  private  judgment. 

The  prosecution  of  the  comparative  method  in  the  study 
of  history  requires  an  increase  of  facilities  beyond  the 
meagre  text-books  now  in  use.  While  by  no  means  advo- 
cating the  abolition  of  all  manuals,  chronologies,  and  gen- 


HISTORICAL    STUDY.  139 

era!  sketches  of  history,  I  would  strongly  urge  the  estab- 
lishment of  class-libraries  for  historical  reference.  This 
special  practice  would  be  quite  in  harmony  with  the  growing 
custom  of  equipping  public  schools  with  special  libraries. 
It  is  a  practice  which  the  interest  of  publishers  and  the 
good  sense  of  all  friends  of  education  would  tend  to  foster. 
At  Smith  College,  Harvard  College,  and  at  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  the  comparative  method  of  stud}'  in  history 
and  other  subjects  has  long  been  in  operation.  In  Cam- 
bridge and  in  Baltimore,  certain  books  are  reserved  from 
the  main  library  of  the  university  for  class-use.  In  Balti- 
more, such  reservations  are  occasionally  supplemented  by 
drafts  on  other  libraries  in  the  city,  and  b}-  private  contri- 
butions. The  books  are  read  in  the  university  reading- 
room,  but  are  taken  out  by  special  arrraugement,  for  a 
limited  time,  when  there  is  no  other  demand. 

3.  The  Co-operative  Method. — It  is  not  possible,  within 
the  limits  of  this  paper,  to  describe  the  development  of  that 
new  system  of  writing  history,  which  is  based  upon  the 
economic  principles  of  division  of  labor  and  final  co-opera- 
tion. The  time  was  when  individual  historians,  monks  and 
chroniclers,  grappled  boldly  with  the  history  of  the  whole 
world.  There  are  still  compilers  of  text-books  for  schools 
and  colleges  who  attempt  to  epitomize  the  deeds  of  men 
from  creation  down  to  the  present  day.  Indeed,  the  great- 
est of  living  historians,  Leopold  von  Ranke,  is  now  rapidly 
reviewing  universal  history  in  a  work  which  already  em- 
braces several  volumes,  and  which  he  hopes  to  finish  soon, 
being  now  at  the  age  of  eighty-nine,  so  that  he  may  resume 
more  special  work.  But,  in  spite  of  this  extraordinary 
example,  which  seems  to  defy  the  weakness  of  age  and  the 
will  of  fate,  it  may  be  said  with  confidence  that  the  day  of 
universal  histories  by  individual  men  is  past.  The  day  for 


140  SPECIAL   METHODS   OF 

the  special  and  co-operative  treatment  of  history  by  coun- 
tries, epochs,  and  monographic  themes  is  already  here.  We 
see  a  co-operative  tendency  in  the  best  school-books.  The 
history  even  of  a  single  nation  is  now  recognized  as  too  vast 
a  thing  for  one  man  to  handle  in  a  truly  scientific  manner, 
although  special  results  of  individual  research  are  still  co- 
ordinated in  popular  ways.  The  most  notable  example  of 
the  co-operative  method  in  universal  history  is  the  new  mon- 
ographic history  of  the  world,  edited  by  Professor  Wilhelm 
Oncken,  but  composed  by  the  most  eminent  specialists  in 
Germany.  One  man  writes  the  history  of  Eg}Tpt  in  the 
light  of  modern  research  ;  another  that  of  Persia ;  a  third 
reviews  the  history  of  Greece,  giving  the  latest  results  of 
Grecian  archaeological  investigations ;  others  revise  Roman 
history  and  the  early  history  of  Germanic  peoples. 

This  co-operative  method  has  lately  been  applied  in 
Schonberg's  great  work  on  political  economy,  and  was 
applied  many  years  ago  to  a  dictionary  of  political  science 
by  the  late  Dr.  J.  C.  Bluntschli,  of  Heidelburg.  Under  his 
editorial  guidance,  contributions  were  made  by  Frencli  and 
German  specialists  to  a  great  variety  of  subjects  relating  to 
European  history  and  politics.  Bluutschli's  example  has 
been  followed  in  this  country  by  the  publication  of  Lalor's 
"Cyclopaedia  of  Political  Science,  Political  Economy,  and  of 
the  Political  History  of  the  United  States."  In  America,  the 
co-operative  method  of  writing  history  has  long  been  in 
quiet  operation.  Perhaps  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  fruit- 
ful examples  was  that  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  So- 
ciety, which,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  began  to 
encourage  the  writing  of  New  England  town  histor}'  upon 
principles  of  local  co-operation.  The  contributions  of  parish 
ministers  and  local  antiquaries  were  published  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  society,  and  proved  the  humble  beginnings 


HISTOBICAL  STUDY.  141 

of  that  remarkable  series  of  town  histories,  which  have  now 
specialized  the  constitution  of  New  England  into  a  vast 
number  of  village  republics,  each  one  thought  worthy  of 
independent  treatment.  Co-operation  has  entered  even  the 
local  domain,  e.g.,  the  history  of  Boston,  after  passing 
through  various  individual  hands,  has  lately  been  rewritten 
by  a  group  of  specialists,  working  under  the  editorial  direc- 
tion of  Professor  Justin  Winsor,  of  Harvard  College.  This 
method  is  now  proposed  in  Providence  and  other  cities.  It 
has  been  extended  by  Justin  Winsor  to  the  whole  country, 
for  the  "  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  the  United 
States,"  which  he  is  now  editing,  is  made  up  of  monographs 
by  the  best  specialists  that  the  country  affords. 

The  urgent  plea,  then,  for  the  co-operative  method  which 
I  would  make  is  this :  apply  it  to  the  study  of  general  histor}" 
in  classes.  Experience  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University 
and  at  Smith  College  has  shown  the  advantage  of  this 
method  for  classes  with  a  short  period  of  time  at  their  com- 
mand, who  nevertheless  desire  to  cover  a  goodly  stretch  of 
historical  territory.  The  method,  in  its  practical  operation, 
consists  of  a  division  of  labor  in  a  class  guided  by  an 
instructor,  who  undertakes  to  direct  special  work  into  co- 
operative channels.  The  student,  while  to  some  extent 
upon  the  common  ground  of  text-books,  or  prescribed 
authors,  and  while  taking  notes  upon  class-lectures,  of  a 
special  character,  carries  on  investigations  in  close  connec- 
tion with  the  general  course.  Written  reports  are  submitted 
to  a  critic  for  correction,  are  read  before  an  elocutionist  for 
the  sake  of  training  in  the  art  of  presentation,  and  are  then 
finally  presented,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  to  the  class,  who 
take  notes  and  are  examined  upon  these  co-operative  studies 
in  the  same  way  as  on  material  presented  by  the  instructor. 

An  interesting  and  valuable  practice  has  gradually  grown 


142  SPECIAL  METHODS   OF 

up  among  students  of  historical  and  political  science  at  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  namely,  that  of  students  lectur- 
ing to  their  own  class  upon  subjects  connected  with  the 
course.  The  practice  originated  several  years  ago  among 
undergraduate  students  of  history  and  international  law ; 
it  was  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  topical  method  of  study. 
It  is  a  practice  considerably  different  from  that  of  reading- 
formal  essays,  which  often  prove  very  burdensome  to  a  class 
of  intelligent  pupils.  The  idea  of  oral  reports  with  the  aid 
of  a  brief  or  of  a  few  notes,  or,  best  of  all.  of  an  analysis 
written  upon  the  blackboard,  led  the  way  to  the  preparation 
of  a  regular  course  of  co-operative  lectures  by  members  of 
a  class  working  conjointly  with  the  instructor.  Greater 
dignity  was  given  to  the  efforts  of  students  by  asking  them 
in  turn  to  come  to  the  front,  to  the  map  or  blackboard,  or 
else  to  the  instructor's  chair.  For  the  time  being  the  stu- 
dent became  the  teacher.  Pretensions  were  seldom  made  to 
original  investigations  in  preparing  for  such  a  class-lecture. 
The  understanding  was  that  students  should  collect  the  most 
authoritative  information  upon  a  given  subject,  and  present  it 
to  his  fellows  in  an  instructive  way.  This  naturally  implied 
the  selection  of  the  best  points  of  view,  and  the  omission  of 
all  irrelevant  matter.  The  success  of  the  lecturer  turned, 
not  upon  his  occupying  the  time  by  reading  an  encyclopaedic 
article,  but  upon  his  kindling  the  interest  of  his  classmates, 
and  keeping  their  attention  to  the  end. 

4.  The  Seminary  Method. — The  Seminarinm,  like  the 
college  and  the  university,  is  of  ecclesiastical  origin.  His- 
torically speaking,  the  seminary  was  a  nursery  of  theology 
and  a  training-school  for  seminary  priests.  The  modern 
theological  seminary  has  evolved  from  the  mediaeval  institu- 
tion, and  modern  seminary-students,  whether  at  school  or  nt 
the  university,  are  only  modifications  of  the  earlier  types. 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  143 

The  Church  herself  early  began  the  process  of  differentiat- 
ing the  ecclesiastical  seminary  for  the  purposes  of  secular 
education.  Preachers  become  teachers,  and  the  propaganda 
of  religion  prepared  the  way  for  the  propaganda  of  science. 
The  seminary  method  of  modern  universities  is  merely  the 
development  of  the  old  scholastic  method  of  advancing 
philosophical  inquiry  by  the  defence  of  original  theses.  The 
seminary  is  still  a  training-school  for  doctors  of  philosophy  ; 
but  it  has  evolved  from  a  nursery  of  dogma  into  a  laboratory 
of  scientific  truth. 

The  transformation  of  the  Seininarium  into  a  laboratory  of 
science  was  first  accomplished  more  than  fifty  years  ago  by 
Germany's  greatest  historian,  Leopold  von  Ranke.  He  was 
born  in  the  year  1795,  and  has  been  Professor  of  History  at 
the  University  of  Berlin  since  1825.  There,  about  1830,  he 
instituted  those  practical  exercises  in  historical  investigation 
(exercitationes  historicae)  which  developed  a  new  school  of 
historians.  Such  men  as  Waitz,  Giesebrecht,  Wattenbach, 
Von  S3'bel,  Adolph  Schmidt,  and  Duncker,  owe  their  meth- 
ods to  this  father  of  historical  science.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  these  scholars,  the  historical  seminary  has  been 
extended  throughout  all  the  universities  in  Germany,  and 
even  to  institutions  beyond  German  borders. 


It  is  easy  to  outline  a  few  external  characteristics  of  the 
seminary  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  but  difficult  to 
picture  its  inner  life.  Its  workings  are  so  complex  and 
varied,  that  it  cannot  be  confined  within  walls,  or  restricted 
to  a  single  library.  Its  members  are  to  be  found,  now  in 
its  own  rooms,  now  at  the  Peabody  Institute,  or  again  in  the 
library  of  the  Maryland  Historical  Society.  Sometimes  its 
delegates  may  be  seen  in  the  libraries  of  Philadelphia,  or  in 


144  SPECIAL.   METHODS   OF 

the  Library  of  Congress,  or  in  some  parish  registry  of  South 
Carolina,  or  in  some  town  clerk's  office  in  New  England. 
One  summer  the  president  of  the  university  found  a  Johns 
Hopkins  student  in  Quebec  studying  French  parishes  and 
Canadian  feudalism.  The  next  summer,  this  same  student, 
now  a  teacher  in  Washington,  D.C.,  was  visiting  lona,  and 
tramping  through  the  parishes  of  England.  He  called  by 
the  wayside  upon  the  English  historian,  Mr.  Freeman,  at  his 
home  in  Somerset.  Once  the  seminary  sent  a  deputy  in 
winter  to  a  distant  village  community  upon  the  extreme 
eastern  point  of  Long  Island,  East  Hampton,  where  he 
studied  the  history  of  the  common  lands  at  Montauk,  with 
the  queen  of  the  Montauk  Indians  for  his  sovereign  pro- 
tectress and  chief  cook.  Half  a  dozen  members  of  the 
seminary  have  gone  off  together  on  an  archaeological  excur- 
sion, for  example,  to  an  old  Maryland  parish,  like  St. 
John's,  where  lies  the  ruined  town  of  Joppa,  the  original 
seat  of  Baltimore  county ;  or  again,  to  North  Point,  the 
scene  of  an  old  battle-ground  and  the  first  site  of  St.  Paul's, 
the  original  parish  chui-ch  of  Baltimore  ;  and  still  again,  to 
Annapolis,  where,  with  a  steam  launch  belonging  to  the 
Naval  Academy,  and  under  the  guidance  of  a  local  anti- 
quary, they  visited  Greenberry's  Point,  upon  the  river 
Severn,  the  site  of  that  ancient  Puritan  commonwealth 
which  migrated  from  Virginia,  and  was  originally  called 
Providence,  from  which  sprang  the  Puritan  capital  of  Mary- 
land. Repoi'ts  of  these  archaeological  excursions,  written 
by  members  of  the  seminary  connected  with  the  Baltimore 
press,  found  their  way  into  the  public  prints,  and  were  read 
by  many  people  in  town  and  country,  who  thus  became  more 
deeply  interested  in  the  history  of  Maryland. 

The  scientific  sessions  of  the  seminar}7,  two  hours  each 
week,  are  probably  the  least  of  its  work,  for  every  member 


HISTORICAL   STUDY  145 

is  engaged  upon  some  branch  of  special  research,  which 
occupies  a  vast  amount  of  time.  Researches  are  prosecuted 
upon  the  economic  principles  of  division  of  labor  and  co- 
operation. This  co-operation  appears  not  merely  in  the 
inter-dependence  of  student-monographs,  but  in  every-day 
student-life.  A  word  is  passed  here,  a  hint  is  given  there ; 
a  new  fact  or  reference,  casually  discovered  by  one  man,  is 
communicated  to  another  to  whom  it  is  of  more  special 
interest;  a  valuable  book,  found  in  some  Baltimore  library 
or  antiquarian  bookstore,  is  recommended,  or  purchased  for 
a  friend.  These  things,  however,  are  only  indications  of 
that  kindly  spirit  of  co-operation  which  flows  steadily  on 
beneath  the  surface  of  student-life. 


One  of  the  most  interesting,  if  not  the  most  valuable 
features  of  the  seminary  library,  is  the  so-called  newspaper 
bureau.  This  consists  primarily  of  an  office  wherein  the 
newspapers  of  the  day  are  reduced  to  their  lowest  terms  for 
purposes  of  historical  and  political  science.  Certain  files 
are  preserved  for  future  reference ;  but  the  great  majority  of 
papers  are  cut  to  pieces  for  scientific  purposes.  A  compe- 
tent force  of  graduate  students  work  an  hour  or  two  each 
da}-,  under  direction,  and  mark  superior  articles  upon  eco- 
nomic, political,  social,  educational,  legal,  and  historical 
subjects.  These  marked  papers  are  excerpted  during  the 
succeeding  week  by  an  office-boy,  pasted  upon  thick  sheets 
of  brown  paper,  octave-size,  indexed  at  the  top,  and 
arranged  alphabetically  in  the  so-called  Woodruff  File- 
holders,  which  are  also  used  for  the  pamphlet  collections  of 
the  seminary.  The  choicest  extracts  from  a  few  leading 
papers,  which  are  clipped  almost  as  soon  as  they  come,  are 
placed  upon  special  bulletin-boards  devoted  each  to  some 


146        SPECIAL   METHODS   OF   HISTORICAL   STUDY. 

one  department.  The  sub-headings  under  which  the  various 
clippings  are  grouped  are  changed  from  week  to  week,  when 
the  old  material  is  cleared  off  and  a  new  lot  tacked  up.  The 
idea  is  to  exhibit  the  current  topics  for  a  week's  time,  in  so 
far  as  they  relate  to  the  interests  of  the  seminary.  The 
young  men  who  attend  to  these  bulletin-boards  for  their 
fellow-students  are  learning  not  only  critical  and  orderly 
methods,  but  also  the  potential  process  of  making  up  a  jour- 
nal of  historical  and  political  science.  They  are  learning  to 
be  journalists  and  editors.  Without  professing  to  be  a 
school  of  journalism,  the  seminary  has  furnished  writers  for 
each  of  the  prominent  papers  in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  and 
for  some  journals  at  a  distance,  while  several  of  its  members 
have  secured  editorial  positions. 

In  addition  to  its  newspaper  bureau,  which  is  a  valuable 
auxiliary  in  the  study  of  contemporary  politics,  economics, 
socialism,  etc.,  the  seminary  has  devoted  especial  attention 
to  the  collection  of  statistical  materials,  documents  illustrat- 
ing local,  municipal,  state,  and  national  institutions ;  also 
to  the  collection  of  maps,  woi'ks  of  historical  and  political 
geography.  The  beginnings  of  an  historical  museum  have 
also  been  made,  so  that  students  of  history  find  themselves 
surrounded  b\"  evidences  of  human  progress  from  the  stone 
age  to  the  newspaper. 


SEMINA11Y    OF    HISTORICAL   AND    POLITICAL   SCIEJMCE.       147 


A.  Seminary  Table  with  new  books  and  current  periodicals. 
— B.  Lecture  Rooms.  —  C.  History  Office. — D.  Newspaper 
Bureau.  —  E.  Economy  Office.  —  F.  Map  Bureau,  Historical 
and  Physical  Geography.  —  G.  Statistics,  Lavatory,  Lift, 
Stairway  to  Library.  —  H.  Bluntschli  M8S.  and  Portrait; 
Lieber  MSS.  —  I.  Stairway  to  Library  and  Hopkins  Hall.— 
J.  Alcove  of  Ancient  History.  —  K.  Alcove  of  General  His- 
tory. —  L.  Alcove  of  Economics.  —  M.  Alcove  of  Adminis- 
tration. —  N.  Alcove  of  Political  Science.  —  O.  Alcove  of 
International  Law.  —  P.  Alcove  of  State  Laws  and  State  His- 
tory.—  Q.  Alcove  of  English,  German,  Swiss,  French,  and 
Roman  Law —  R.  Librarian's  Desk.  —  S.  Desks  of  Fellows 
and  Graduate  Scholars.  —  T.  Revolving  Cases.  —  U.  Library 
Bureau,  Journals,  bound  vols.  —  V.  Church  History.  —  W. 
Hat  and  Cloak  Room.  —  X.  Public  Documents,  U.S.  —  Y.  His 
torical  Museum.  —  Z.  Pamphlets,  Miscellany  and  five  Bulletin 
Boards.  —  a.  Bulletin  Board  for  Clippings.  —  ft.  Card  Cata 
logne  (Subject*  and  Authors). 


THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  STATE  AND  OF  HISTORY. 


GEORGE  S.  MORRIS. 

ancient  philosopher  Heraclitus,  in  the  fragmentary 
-  expressions  of  whose  opinions,  which  alone  are  pre- 
served for  us,  the  modern  speculative  philosopher  and  the 
physical  evolutionist  alike  find  so  many  germs  of  the  com- 
monly received  wisdom  and  of  the  scientific  opinion  of  to- 
day, has  left  behind  him  one  aphorism,  the  perception  of  the 
truth  of  which  is  the  beginning  of  all  wisdom  for  the  student 
of  history  :  TroXv^aOirj  voov  ov  8i8da-Kei.  "  Multifarious  learning 
does  not  instruct  the  mind."  Nay,  more,  "  much  learning," 
taken  merely  by  itself,  is  not  only  without  educational  or 
truby  didactic  value  ;  it  not  only  fails  to  endow  the  learner 
with  real  understanding ;  but,  as  was  rightly  implied  in  the 
address  of  the  Roman  governor  to  St.  Paul,  its  tendency  is 
to  make  one  truly  "  mad." 

The  first  impression  that  the  world  of  history  produces  in 
the  mind  of  the  learner  is  that  of  an  indefinite  multitude 
of  different  events.  One  event  is  not  another.  Each  is  a 
separate  fact.  Each  has  its  separate  place  in  space  or  time, 
or  both.  Each  is  what  the  others  are  not.  To  be  cognizant 
of  some  or  all  of  these  facts,  each  in  its  own  peculiar  place 
in  space  and  time,  and  with  its  own  peculiar  individuality, 
is  unquestionably  the  first  mechanical  condition  of  the  ac- 
quisition of  historical  knowledge  or  science.  Moreover,  the 
circumstance  that  the  facts  in  question  are  indeed  different, 
that  each  new  fact  to  be  learned  is  indeed  a  novel  fact,  or, 
in  some  respect,  sui  generis,  contains  in  part  the  secret  of 


150  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

that  necessary  charm  by  which  the  mind  of  the  student  is 
led  on  from  fact  to  fact,  like  the  bee  from  flower  to  flower, 
and  so  is  armed  with  endurance  to  continue  till  the  end  of 
the  tale  of  "  facts"  is  reached.  But,  to  stop  short  with 
this  cognizance  of  the  multitude  of  facts  in  their  separation 
and  difference,  not  to  see  them  in  the  unity  of  their  relations, 
is  not  to  learn  the  lesson  of  histor}-.  The  mind  thus  simply 
filled,  or  crammed,  is  not  instructed.  Its  sight  is  super- 
ficial ;  it  is  not  insight.  And  the  world  of  history,  thus 
viewed,  is  not  comprehended  as  an  orderly  world.  It  is 
not  a  "rounded  world"  and  "fair  to  see."  It  puts  intel- 
ligence to  confusion.  It  is,  indeed,  my  masters,  "  a  mad 
world  " ! 

History  is  not  simply  (multifarious)  events.  It  is  the 
logic  of  events.  Historic  intelligence  is  not  merely  informa- 
tion respecting  events.  It  is  the  comprehension  of  theii 
logic. 

Philosophy  maybe  fitly  described  as  the  science  of  wholes. 
In  the  last  resort  it  is  the  science  of  the  whole,  as  such,  or 
of  the  one  universal  drama  of  existence  in  the  midst  of  which 
man  is  placed,  and  in  which  he  actively  participates.  Now, 
history,  according  to  the  familiar  aphorism,  is  "philosophy 
teaching  by  example."  Not  the  "  example,"  taken  by  itself 
as  an  isolated  fact,  is  history.  Thus  taken,  it  is  only  a 
brute  fact  divested  of  relations,  and  offering  neither  attrac- 
tion nor  support  to  intelligence.  History  is  the  example, 
plus  that  which  it  exemplifies.  It  is  the  example,  plus  its 
teaching.  It  is  the  "  fact"  seen  in  the  relations  which  alone 
render  it  comprehensible.  It  is  the  fact  seen  as  part  or  mem- 
ber of  an  organic  whole,  and,  consequently,  as  exemplifying 
in  its  place  and  measure  the  law,  idea,  or  life  of  the  whole. 
It  is,  in  short,  the  fact  seen  as  the  illustration  and  phenom- 
enal incarnation  of  a  universal  and  livingly  operative  reason, 


OF   THE   STATE  AND   OF   HISTORY.  151 

Logos,  or  logic,  which,  interior  to  the  fact,  is  the  ground  of 
its  reality,  and,  transcending  the  particular  fact,  connects 
it  with  all  other  facts,  and  so  is  the  ground  of  its  intelligi- 
bility. History,  taken  in  its  broadest  sense,  is  the  object- 
lesson  of  philosophy.  It  is  the  subject-matter  of  philosophy's 
demonstrations.  It  is  the  test  of  the  correctness  of  her  con- 
clusions. And  true  "  history,"  in  the  narrower  or  more  com- 
mon sense  of  this  word,  is  nothing  if  not  philosophical. 

Every  successful  teacher  of  history,  even  with  the  youngest 
pupils,  teaches  in  something  of  the  philosophical  spirit,  and 
with  a  method  more  or  less  philosophical.  He  does  not, 
indeed,  neglect  to  insist  on  the  acquisition,  by  patient 
mnemonic  exercise,  of  exact  information  regarding  parti- 
cular facts  ;  but  he  manages,  at  the  same  time,  to  engage 
the  learner's  imagination  for  the  perception  of  groups  of 
facts  viewed  as  wholes,  and  having,  as  such  wholes,  to  some 
degree,  a  specific  character,  coloring,  or  significance.  He 
makes  the  pupil  exercise,  with  himself,  the  artistic  faculty 
of  inward  picturing.  With  immature  students  this  is  all  that 
is  possible,  and  it  is  enough.  (I  place  under  the  safeguard 
of  a  parenthesis  the  ominous  and  perhaps  irritating  question, 
How  many  really  "  successful  teachers  of  history,  even  with 
the  youngest  pupils,"  have  we  ?)  Ordinary  college  students, 
or  undergraduates,  who,  in  our  commonly  recognized  dis- 
tinction of  educational  grades,  are  treated  as  not  yet  wholly 
mature  and  independent,  but  as  on  the  highway  and  in  the 
doorway  to  such  maturity,  may  justly  claim  something  more. 
In  addition  to  the  faculty  of  abstract  understanding,  exer- 
cised in  the  exact  and  reflective  discrimination  and  memor- 
izing of  facts,  and  the  faculty  of  picturing  imagination,  which 
groups  facts  before  the  eye  of  the  mind,  as  it  were  in  larger 
visible  wholes,  that  higher  potency  of  imagination,  which 
may  be  most  exactly  described  as  the  synthetic  reason,  and 


152  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

for  which  the  pictures  of  history  possess  not  merely  the  ex- 
ternal unity  of  visible  wholes,  but  also  the  inward,  dynamic 
unity  of  self-realizing  law,  idea,  purpose,  should  be  ap- 
pealed to,  and  so,  at  least  in  some  measure,  trained  in  the 
appreciation  of  what  we  will  here  call  historic  truths  (note 
the  plural).  Just  how,  and  in  what  measure,  this  should  be 
done,  I  will  not  and  need  not  now  attempt  to  determine. 
But  I  do  not  in  the  slightest  hesitate  to  declare  my  conviction, 
that  the  university  student  —  the  graduate  student,  or  he 
who,  if  not  technically  a  graduate,  is  held  to  be  sufficiently 
advanced  to  be  permitted  to  pursue  his  studies  under  the 
specifically  university  regime  —  should,  on  the  one  hand,  be 
privileged  and  assisted,  and,  on  the  other,  required  to  exer- 
cise his  faculty  of  "  sj-nthetic  reason  "  in  the  fullest  possible 
degree.  In  other  words,  in  whatever  department  the  special 
subject  of  his  studies  may  lie,  whether  history,  language, 
literature,  mathematics,  or  the  physical  and  natural  sciences, 
he  should  be  expected  to  accompany  his  study  of  and  search 
for  particular  truths  and  orders  of  truths  (the  truths  belong- 
ing to  his  "special  subject")  with  the  study  of  and  search 
for  the  truth,  the  universal  truth,  to  which  all  special  orders 
of  truths  or  "  sciences,"  and  orders  of  "  science,"  are  organ- 
ically related ;  in  which,  as  in  an  universal  organism,  they 
are  all  concretely  one,  "members  one  of  another,"  and  in 
the  light  of  which  alone  the  science  of  each  becomes  com- 
plete. Otherwise  expressed,  the  university  student  should 
pursue,  and  should  be  taught  and  aided  to  pursue,  his  sub- 
ject, however  "special"  and,  at  first  sight,  remote  from 
philosophy  it  may  seem  to  be,  philosophically.  And  by  this 
I  mean  that  he  should  pay,  and  be  directed  and  aided  to 
pay,  express  and  prolonged  attention  to  the  specific  and 
universal  problems  of  philosophy,  considered  both  in  them- 
selves and  in  their  relation  and  application  to  the  subject  of 


OF   THE   STATE   AND   OF    HISTORY.  153 

his  special  studies.  He  should,  in  the  broadest  and  strictest 
sense,  comprehend  the  philosophy  of  his  subject.  He  who 
does  less  than  this  is  a  "  university  student"  only  in  name 
and  outward  appearance,  no  matter  where  or  how  long  lie 
may  have  been  enrolled  as  such  a  student,  or  amid  what 
plaudits  he  may  have  been  crowned  with  the  (in  this  case 
deceptive)  degree  of  "Doctor  of  Philosophy"  ...  I  do 
not,  of  course,  stop  to  point  out  in  detail  how  the  require- 
ment just  insisted  on  is  involved  in  the  very  conception  of  a 
university,  as  indicated  among  other  things  by  the  name 
' '  University  "  itself. 

The  justice  of  the  requirement  above  mentioned  is  a  thing 
which  it  should  be  easy  enough  to  demonstrate  in  its  relation 
to  any  of  the  departments  of  university  work.  It  is  particu- 
larly obvious  in  its  relation  to  the  department  of  histor}-. 

What  is  the  universal  truth ;  the  truth  of  all  truths ;  the 
truth  in  which  all  truths  are  united,  and  which  reveals  and 
realizes  itself  in  them  all ;  the  truth  of  which  all  other  truths 
are,  in  their  place  and  kind,  the  concrete  manifestation  and 
evidence,  and  of  which  philosophy  is  the  universal  science? 
The  answer  that  philosophy,  in  its  most  substantial  and  com- 
plete forms,  whether  ancient  or  modern,  gives  to  this  ques- 
tion, is  perfectly  expressed  in  the  words  of  one  of  those 
writers  whom  the  Christian  world  has  termed  sacred,  "  The 
Spirit  is  truth."  All  truth  is  truth  of  spirit.  All  reality  is 
spiritually  conditioned.  All  being  has  its  roots  in  a  spiritual 
life  by  which  its  form  and  nature  and  substance  are  de- 
termined. Spirit  is  universal,  self-conscious  reason.  "  What- 
ever," therefore,  "is  real  is  rational."  Spirit  is  dynamic, 
living,  concrete,  and  is  the  source  and  soul  of  law.  What- 
ever is  real,  therefore,  bears  the  same  marks  and  illustrates 
the  "  reign  of  law"  or  of  reason. 

The  spirit,  or  living  self-conscious  reason,  which  is  the 


154  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

universal  truth,  is  not  the  human  spirit,  but  it  is,  if  this  ex- 
pression may  here  be  allowed,  the  truth  of  the  human  spirit. 
The  latter  "  lives,  moves,  and  has  its  being"  in  the  former. 
The  spirit  of  man  realizes  its  own  essential  nature  only  so 
far  as  it  realizes  in  itself  the  "  image  "  of  the  absolute  spirit. 
The  reason  of  man  accomplishes  its  normal  function  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  truth  only  so  far  as,  to  use  Kepler's  grand 
expression,  it  "  thinks  the  thoughts  of  God,"  and  that  by  a 
process  whereby  it  illustrates  and  actualizes  its  organic  de- 
pendence upon,  and  so  far  its  organic  unity  with,  the  uni- 
versal spirit.  The  sufficiency  of  the  individual  to  think,  to 
think  truly,  to  think  and  know  the  truth,  is  of  God,  of  that 
absolute  and  concretely  universal  or  omnipresent  "  spirit," 
which  of  all  things  is  "the  truth."  This  relation  is,  of 
course,  not  one  in  which  the  activity  of  the  individual  reason 
is  suspended  or  rendered  useless.  It  is  the  rather  condi- 
tioned on  the  fullest  and  freest  activity  of  the  individual. 

It  will  now  be  seen  how  philosophy,  which  is  defined  as 
the  science  of  the  universal  truth,  can  also  be  called  the 
science  of  self-conscious  reason.  It  may  well  be  considered 
as  a  common- place  of  philosophic  science,  that  the  fund- 
amental, or  "ground-laying"  part  of  philosophy,  is  the 
science  of  intelligence  or  knowledge.  Philosophy  demon- 
strates that  the  essential  and  all-determining  nature  of 
intelligence  is  to  be  self-conscious  reason.  And  it  also 
demonstrates  that  true  self-consciousness  is  something  that 
transcends  the  individual,  being  realized  only  through  the 
"objective"  consciousness  and  progressive  knowledge  of 
the  whole  universe  of  dependent  existence,  and  in  organic 
dependence  on  an  universal  and  absolute  self -consciousness. 

The  universal  self-consciousness,  or  reason,  of  man,  which 
is  the  characteristically  spiritual  side  of  man's  being,  is  also 
the  essential  side.  It  is  by  this  and  in  this  that  man  is 


OF   THE   STATE   AND   OF   HISTORY.  155 

truly  man.  Viewed  on  this  side  of  his  being,  man  is  not  a 
wholly  completed  actuality.  He  is  not  fully  himself.  He 
has  not  realized  in  full  all  the  potentialities  of  his  nature. 
He  is  to  himself  an  ideal,  a  problem.  In  the  progressive, 
active  approximation  to  the  ideal  in  question,  or  solution  of 
the  problem,  man  first  comes  to  himself,  and,  in  a  measure, 
truly  is  himself.  The  activity  by  which  he  accomplishes 
this  end  is  two-fold,  theoretical  and  practical ;  theoretical, 
consisting,  through  the  development  of  universal  science,  in 
the  augmentation  of  his  knowledge  of  himself  and  of  his 
own  possibilities  ;  and  practical,  consisting  in  activities  con- 
ditioned by  this  knowledge,  and  directed  toward  the  use  of 
the  powers  of  nature  and  the  ordering  of  human  relations, 
in  magno  and  in  parvo,  so  that  the  possibilities  mentioned 
may  be  more  fully  actualized. 

These  activities  now  are  the  immediate  substance  or  the 
present  active  factors  of  history.  The  growingly  self-con- 
scious intelligence,  which  conditions  and  directs  them,  is  the 
soul  of  history.  Their  end  is  the  erection  on  earth  of  a 
realm  of  the  spirit,  which  is  a  true  "  kingdom  of  heaven  " 
or  of  God,  and  in  which  man  gradually  comes  into  the  in- 
dependent possession  of  his  true  and  substantial  freedom 
through  the  theoretic  apprehension  and  practical  realization 
of  "  the  truth."  History  is  the  realm  of  man,  and  the  realm 
of  man  is  the  realm  of  the  spirit.  How,  then,  shall  not 
history  be  philosophical  ?  How  shall  it  not  be  ' '  philosophy 
teaching  by  example  "  ?  And  how  shall  he  be  pronounced  a 
"Doctor"  of  history  who  has  not  comprehended  history  as 
philosophy  thus  teaching? 

In  the  college,  let  the  student,  by  all  means,  study  and 
learn  "histories";  and  in  the  university,  let  not  these  be 
forgotten  or  neglected.  But,  above  all  things,  and  as  the 
one  thing  indispensably  needful,  let  the  student  here  study 


156  THE  PHILOSOPHY 

and  learn  history.  Let  him  see  and  know  man  in  history, 
and  through  this  knowledge  let  him  see  the  absolute  spirit  in 
history. 

But,  it  may  be  said,  there  are  many  well-known  and  not 
uninfluential  philosophizes  who  contend  that  a  true  science 
of  knowledge  reveals  man  as  possessing  no  other  and  higher 
categories  with  which  to  proceed  to  the  compi-ehension  of 
the  whole  world  of  reality,  whether  natural  or  moral,  than 
the  purely  mechanical  and  sensibly  conditioned  ones  of  ab- 
stract mathematical  and  physical  science,  and  that  he  is 
incapable  of  possessing  any  others.  The  interpretation  of 
history  then  becomes  for  them  simply  equivalent  to  the  solu- 
tion of  a  problem  in  "moral"  mechanics.  History  is,  indeed, 
held  to  be  one  whole  and  a  moving  whole  ;  but  it  is  a  whole, 
all  of  whose  strictly  kuowable  and  scientifically  determinable 
attributes  really  belong  to  the  physical  order  of  things  alone  ; 
and  it  is  a  whole  which,  both  as  a  whole  and  in  all  its  parts, 
moves  on  automatically  and  without  freedom  according  to 
simple  mechanical  laws,  following  everywhere  the  line  of 
least  resistance  and  greatest  traction,  and  exemplifying 
some  such  general  law  as  (say)  that  of  universal  evolution 
and  dissolution  ...  In  reply,  I  say  that  I  am  unable  to 
perceive  that  the  champions  of  the  foregoing  theory  are 
acquainted  with  the  whole  science  of  knowledge,  or  that 
they  have  once  profoundly  and  faithfully  studied  the  chief 
works  which  now  belong  to  the  history  of  philosophic  science, 
and  comprehended  the  lesson  they  contain.  In  so  far,  if  my 
perception  is  coi'rect,  their  opinions  are  deficient  in  value. 
But,  supposing  them  to  be  wholly  in  the  right,  it  must  be 
allowed  that  they  are  but  fulfilling  an  intrinsic  and  inde- 
feasible requirement  of  historic  science  in  seeking  to  found, 
on  the  basis  of  their  mechanical  conceptions,  a  philosophic 
interpretation  of  universal  history.  And,  on  the  same 


OF  THE   STATE   AND   OF  HISTORY.  157 

supposition,  it  would  be  the  duty  of  the  university  student 
of  history  to  follow  in  their  steps.  The  undergraduate 
student  of  history,  for  example,  might  conceivably  be  one 
of  those  accumulators  who  bring  statistical  grist  to  Mr. 
Spencer's  mill.  But  it  would  be  the  duty  and  privilege  of 
the  university  student  to  raise  himself  to  the  intellectual 
plane  of  the  great  miller  himself ;  he  should,  in  spirit,  be 
a  Spencer  or  a  Buckle.  Philosophy  of  some  kind  there  must 
be ;  for  philosophy  is,  in  conception,  nothing  but  the  science 
of  the  whole,  and,  without  such  science,  all  other  science  — 
the  science  or  knowledge  of  parts  —  remains  incomplete,  lack- 
ing connection,  and  confused.  And  if  the  philosophy  that 
one  have,  or  that  one  find  current,  be  unfortunately  one- 
sided, abstract,  and  inhospitable  toward  certain  sides  of 
that  whole  world  of  actuality,  which  it  is  the  sole  business 
of  philosophy  to  comprehend,  yet  one  must  accept  it,  and 
apply  it  as  far  as  it  will  go,  and  so  make  the  best  of  it.  Of 
course,  it  is  the  business  of  a  university  to  see  to  it  that 
philosophy  is,  within  its  precincts,  comprehended,  prose- 
cuted, and  taught  without  such  defects  as  those  just  named. 
I  hasten  to  add  that,  when  this  is  done,  the  relative  truth, 
and,  within  its  peculiar  bounds,  the  important  truth  of  the 
mechanical  philosophy  in  its  application  to  the  moral  world, 
which  includes  the  world  of  history,  will  be  fully  recognized. 
No  one  can  shut  his  eyes  to  the  mechanical  aspect  which  be- 
longs to  all  events,  whatsoever,  that  occur  within  the  bounds 
and  under  the  forms  of  space  and  time,  including,  there- 
fore, the  events  of  history.  But  the  eye  of  really  concrete, 
catholic,  and  all-embracing  philosophic  science,  sees  that 
the  mechanical  aspect  of  events  is  only  an  aspect ;  that  the 
whole  event,  in  any  case  under  consideration,  includes  more 
than  this  aspect ;  and  that  the  science,  or  "  philosophy," 
which  regards  only  this  aspect,  is  abstract ;  that  it  abstracts 


158  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

from  something  else  in  the  event  which  is  essential ;  and  that 
it  is,  therefore,  from  the  point  of  view  of  complete  philosophy, 
fragmentary,  partial,  "  one-sided."  True  philosophy  per- 
ceives that,  throughout  the  universe  of  living  existence  —  and 
this,  subject  to  exact  definitions,  must  be  conceived  as  equi- 
valent to  the  whole  actual  universe  —  the  mechanical  is  con- 
ditioned by  and  logically  posterior  to  the  organic ;  the  dead 
is  the  product  of  the  living,  the  phenomenal  of  the  nournenal. 
I  trust  I  have  made  it  sufficiently  evident  that  the  ex- 
pression "  philosophy  of  history"  points  to  a  real  problem 
of  essential  importance  for  the  student  of  history,  and  that  I 
have  sufficiently  indicated  what  the  true  scope  of  the  problem 
in  general  is.  I  have  said  nothing  of  the  great  advance  made 
by  historians  during  the  last  century  in  the  philosophic  treat- 
ment of  their  subjects,  nor  of  the  pains  which  great  his- 
torians have  thought  it  not  unimportant  to  take  to  equip 
themselves  for  their  work  by  careful  training  in  specifically 
philosophic  studies.  There  are  many  signs  that  the  times 
are  ripe,  or  ripening,  for  a  more  extensive  introduction  of 
the  philosophic  element  into  the  treatment  of  history  in  this 
country.  The  most  obvious  of  these  is  perhaps  to  be  found 
in  the  rapid  development  and  adoption  of  university  methods 
at  a  number  of  our  educational  centres  during  the  last  ten  or 
a  dozen  years.  The  true  "  university  conception,"  if  I  may 
so  express  it,  has  but  recently  made  its  appearance  among  us  ; 
and  it  has  evidently  come  to  stay.  And  this  phenomenon,  by 
what  cannot  be  considered  as  an  accidental  coincidence,  is 
accompanied  by  (or  shall  I  rather  say  accompanies?)  a  new 
and  growing  sense  of  the  nature  of  the  problems  which  are 
strictly  peculiar  to  philosophy,  and  of  their  essential  connec- 
tion with  that  true  and  complete  ideal  of  a  scientifically  cul- 
tured intelligence,  which  must  serve  as  lodestone  and  guid- 
ing-star to  all  "higher  education."  Further,  we  have  now 


OF   THE   STATE   AND   OF   HISTORY.  159 

passed  the  boundary  of  the  first  century  of  our  existence  as 
an  independent  nation.  We  are,  as  a  people,  now  engaged 
in  a  confused  struggle  with  the  problem  of  our  own  national 
self-consciousness.  We  want  to  know  what  is  the  spirit  that 
is  in  us  as  a  nation.  We  must  know  this,  in  order  to  be 
properly  master  of  ourselves  and  of  our  destiny.  We  must 
know  this,  in  order  to  know  our  place  in  universal  history, 
in  order  to  appreciate  the  special  task  that  falls  to  us  in  the 
solution  of  that  universal  problem  of  the  full  realization  of 
man,  of  humanity  "  standing  complete  and  wanting  nothing," 
at  which,  whether  blindly  or  consciously,  all  nations  and 
peoples  are  at  work,  and  their  work  upon  which  constitutes 
the  living  and  essential  substance  of  history.  Our  politicians 
need  this,  that  they  may  become  statesmen.  And  both  states- 
men and  people  need  this,  the  former,  in  order  that  their 
labor  may  be  truly  constructive  and  enduring ;  and  the  lat- 
ter, in  order  that  they  may  willingly  cooperate  in  the  pursuit 
and  realization  of  true  political  ideals.  Here,  then,  is  a 
a  place  where  theory,  in  the  broadest  sense  of  this  term,  or 
the  best  work  of  intelligence,  comes  in  contact  with  actuality. 
Here  is  a  "  living  question"  imperatively  demanding  prac- 
tical solution,  and  where  none  but  the  best  and  broadest  and 
deepest  intelligence  can  safely  serve.  And  it  does  seem  as 
if  the  time  had  come  when  the  university,  conceived  in  the 
most  liberal  sense  as  the  home  and  the  seat  of  the  activity  of 
the  highest  intelligence,  should  become  the  radiating  source 
and  centre  of  ideal,  and  so  of  most  truly  practical,  influences, 
by  which  the  constructive  work  of  the  nation  shall  be  posi- 
tively furthered,  and  the  ideal  substance  of  the  national  life 
enriched.  That  our  university  workers  in  political  science 
and  history,  applying  themselves  to  their  task  with  philo- 
aophic  spirit  and  method,  will  contribute  to  the  realization 


160  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

of  a  state  of  things,  so  much  to  be  desired,  no  one  should  have 
any  doubt. 

And  now  for  a  few  practical  suggestions.  For  how,  an 
interested  party  will  naturally  ask,  shall  I  go  about  to  study 
and  teach  the  philosophy  of  history?  I  confess  freely  that 
the  bank-account  of  my  own  experience  in  this  matter  is  not 
plethori*,,  and  that  of  my  observation  of  others'  work  is  still 
less  so.  Such  as  I  have,  with  some  diffidence,  I  will  attempt 
to  give. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  I  have  placed  at  the  head  of  this 
article,  as  its  title,  "The  Philosophy  of  the  State  and  of 
History."  Every  one  will  readily  perceive  the  reason  for 
this.  For  though,  as  Droysen  says,  and  as  I  have  otherwise 
substantially  expressed  it  in  the  foregoing  essay,  "  the  sub- 
ject of  history  is  the  universal  Ego  of  humanity,"  or  "  his- 
tory is  the  yvuOi  aravrov  of  humanity,  its  moral  self -conscious- 
ness "  ;  yet  the  concrete  form  in  which  this  subject  lies  before 
the  historian  and  student  of  history  is  that  of  social  organ- 
izations or  of  states. 

Of  course,  nothing  can  take  the  place,  in  the  outfit  of  the 
student  of  the  philosophy  of  the  state  and  of  history,  of  a 
previous  course  of  careful  training  in  the  several  "disci- 
plines," or  "  subjects  "  (logic,  both  "  formal  "  and  "  real," 
psychology,  ethics,  etc.),  which  belong  to  philosophy  proper, 
and  in  the  history  of  philosophy  ;  and,  in  agreement  with  the 
views  above  expressed,  such  training,  in  an  university  com- 
pletely organized  and  educationally  equipped,  would  have  to 
be  insisted  on.  But  now  we  will  not,  for  we  cannot,  presup- 
pose that  this  requirement  has  been  fulfilled.  As  a  substi- 
tute, I  would  propose  to  a  student  that  he  read  carefully 
(say)  the  little  book  by  Edwin  "Wallace,  entitled  "  Outlines 
of  the  Philosophy  of  Aristotle"  (Cambridge  and  London, 
third  ed.,  1883  ;  pp.  xi.,  130).  This  work  gives  an  epitome, 


OF   THE   STATE   AND   OP   HISTORY.  161 

with  proof-texts  in  Greek,  of  logic,  metaphysic,  philosophy 
of  nature,  psycholog}',  moral  philosophy,  political  philosoph}*, 
and  philosophy  of  art,  in  as  many  different  chapters,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  best  and  ripest  conceptions  of  ancient  thought. 
Of  all  of  these  conceptions,  that  is  true  which  is  commonly 
said  of  Aristotle's  logic  in  particular,  viz.,  that,  though  an- 
tique, they  can  never  become  antiquated.  The  student  gets, 
from  the  perusal  of  this  epitome,  a  correct  notion,  as  far  as 
it  goes,  of  the  relation  of  political  philosophy  to  philosophy  in 
general,  or  of  its  place  in  the  organism  of  philosophic  science. 
I  say  "  as  far  as  it  goes,"  for,  as  will  be  observed,  no  place 
is  given  in  Aristotle's  scheme  to  the  philosophy  of  history,  a 
subject  to  which  the  philosophy  of  the  state  is  most  inti- 
mately allied,  but  which,  for  obvious  reasons,  could  scarcely 
be  developed  as  a  distinct  discipline  before  modern  times. 

In  the  same  spirit,  I  would  heartily  recommend  the  ' '  Essays 
in  Philosophical  Criticism,"  edited  by  Seth  &  Haldane  (Lon- 
don, 1883).  This  book,  in  my  judgment,  must  be  a  great 
help  to  those  who  would  get  their  bearings  with  reference  to 
most  of  the  leading  subjects  of  philosophy,  in  the  light  of 
the  best  modern  discussion.  The  student  of  the  philosophy 
of  the  State  and  of  history  will  be  specially  helped  by  the 
essays  on  "The  Historical  Method,"  by  W.  R.  Sorley  ;  "The 
Rationality  of  History,"  by  D.  G.  Ritchie  ;  and  "  The  Social 
Organism,"  by  Henry  Jones. 

Commendation  no  less  hearty  is  to  be  given  to  the  "  Grun- 
driss  der  Historik,"  von  Job.  Gust.  Droysen  (Leipzig,  third 
ed.,  1882  ;  pp.  vi.,  44).  To  this  are  added,  as  an  appendix, 
two  essays  on  the  ' '  Elevation  of  History  to  the  Rank  of  a 
Science,"  reviewing  Buckle's  "History  of  Civilization  in 
England,"  and  on  "Art  and  Method,"  by  which  the  num- 
ber of  pages  is  increased  to  90.  A  good  translation  of  the 
"  Grundriss  "  into  English  would,  I  should  think,  be  one  of 


162  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

the  best  services  that  could  be  rendered  for  the  promotion  of 
the  philosophical  study  of  history. 

In  teaching,  now,  the  subjects  we  are  considering,  I  would 
begin  with  the  philosophy  of  the  state.  And  in  treating  this 
topic,  my  method  is  to  begin  with  the  consideration  of  that 
order  of  theories  which  is  apparently  simplest,  and  which 
also,  in  the  order  of  development  of  theories  in  modern  times, 
stands  conspicuously  first  in  time. 

All  theories  of  the  state  may  be  philosophically  classed  in 
two  groups.  The  one  of  these  contains  those  theories  which 
contemplate  the  state,  either  exclusively  or  prevailingly,  from 
a  physical  or  "  natural "  point  of  view,  in  accordance  with  a 
purely  mechanical  conception  of  the  universe,  or  of  omne 
scibile.  The  other  will  include  theories  which  regard  the 
state  primarily  and  fundamentally  from  a  spiritualistic  and 
ethical  point  of  view.  Or,  briefl}",  in  the  theories  of  the  one 
group  a  mechanical  and  ph}"sical  conception  of  the  state 
is  represented  ;  and  in  those  of  the  other,  an  organic  and 
idealistic.  The  former  conception  has,  at  first  sight,  the 
apparent  advantage  in  respect  of  simplicity  and  intelli- 
gibility. 

From  the  first  group,  then,  and  for  the  purpose  of  first 
studying  and  illustrating  the  mechanical  conception,  or 
"philosophy,"  of  the  state,  I  select  t the  "Civil  Philo- 
sophy" of  Thomas  Hobbes  ("De  Give"  and  "Leviathan") 
and  the  politico-philosophical  writings  of  Mr.  Herbert  Spen- 
cer (chiefly  his  "  Social  Statics"  and  "Principles  of  Socio- 
logy ") .  In  what  respects  the  work  of  Hobbes  is  cruder  and 
ruder  than  that  of  Spencer,  how  abhorrent  to  the  latter  are 
some  of  the  positions  of  the  former,  and  what  concession 
Mr.  Spencer  himself  makes  in  his  own  works,  at  least  in 
appearance,  to  the  demands  of  the  organic  conception  of  the 
state,  is  well  known,  or  may  be  easily  learned,  and  has, 


OF  THE   STATE   AND   OF   HISTORY.  163 

of  course,  in  the  progress  of  our  study  or  teaching,  to  be 
duly  recognized.  It  still  remains  that  the  lines  of  fun- 
damental, or  of  quasi-philosophical  agreement,  are  such  as 
are  implied  in  the  classification  of  these  two  theorizers  in 
the  same  group.  From  the  works  named  I  select  such  prin- 
ciples, or  statements  of  principles,  as  are  fundamental,  and 
then  seek  to  exhibit  them,  and  to  engage  my  students  to 
study  and  comprehend  them,  both  in  themselves  and  in  their 
collective  relation  to  the  subject-matter  —  the  state  —  which 
they  are  invoked  to  explain.  If  it  then  appears,  as  I  think 
it  must,  that  these  principles  are  essentially  inadequate,  we 
are  prepared  to  go  forward  and  try  whether  the  theories  of 
the  other  group  are  any  more  complete,  and  so  nearer  to  the 
whole  truth. 

For  those  who  are  inclined  to  go  further  in  the  direction 
previously  considered,  and  study  the  mechanical  conception 
of  the  state  in  the  light  of  modern  socialistic  theories  founded 
upon  it,  the  literature  at  command  is  abundant.  The  press, 
in  certain  quarters,  teems  with  it.  And  one  will  be  sure  to 
find  appropriate  material  among  the  books  and  pamphlets 
included  in  the  "  Bibliotheque  Socialiste,"  published  at  Paris 
by  Henry  Oriol. 

From  works  belonging  to  the  second  group,  I  am  accus- 
tomed to  select  for  consideration  and  study  Aristotle's 
"  Politics  "  and  Hegel's  "  Philosophic  des  Rechts."  These 
two  works  may,  I  think,  justly  be  regarded  as  representing 
the  high-watermark  —  the  one  in  ancient  times,  and  the 
other  in  modern  —  in  the  treatment  of  the  philosophical 
conception  of  the  state.  Aristotle,  certainly,  cannot  be 
wholly  antiquated,  for  so  true  a  child  of  the  modern  en- 
lightenment as  Mr.  Frederick  Pollock,  has  recently,  in  rela- 
tion to  this  very  matter  of  political  philosophy,  raised  the 
very  sane  cry,  "  back  to  Aristotle."  And  of  Hegel's  work, 


164  THE  PHILOSOPHY 

that  remains  true,  in  spite  of  all  its  unquestionable  infirmities, 
which  is  said  of  it  by  Adolf  Lasson  in  his  own  recently- 
published  "System  der  Kechtsphilosophie "  (Berlin,  1882, 
p.  104),  that  its  place  is  in  "  the  foremost  rank  of  the  class- 
ical productions  of  the  science  of  all  times."  Of  the  several 
translations  of  Aristotle's  "  Politics,"  the  latest  one,  by  J.  E. 
C.  Welldon  (London  :  Macmillan  &  Co.,  1883),  is  most  at- 
tractive. Mr.  A.  C.  Bradley  has  an  essay  on  "Aristotle's 
Conception  of  the  State,"  in  "  Hellenica,"  edited  by  E.  Ab- 
bott (London,  1880).  Hegel's  "Philosophic  des  Rechts"  has 
not  been  translated  into  English.  An  essay  entitled  ' '  Hegel's 
Philosophy  of  Right"  was  published  in  the  volume  of  "  Ox- 
ford Essays"  (1855).  In  vol.  VI.  of  the  "Journal  of  Specu- 
lative Philosophy,"  edited  by  W.  T.  Harris,  will  be  found  a 
translation  of  the  brief  summary  of  the  Philosophy  of  Right, 
as  contained  in  Hegel's  "  Philosophie  des  Geistes."  A  criti- 
cal exposition  of  Hegel's  "Philosophy  of  the  State  and  of 
History"  will  be  published  in  the  series  of  "  German  Philo- 
sophical Classics  for  English  Readers  and  Students,"  pub- 
lished by  S.  C.  Griggs  &  Co.,  Chicago.  The  dynamic  con- 
ceptions of  Aristotle  and  Hegel,  being  much  less  abstract 
and,  in  this  respect,  simple  than  those  of  Hobbes  and 
.Spencer,  require,  for  their  adequate  appreciation,  longer 
study  and  a  greater  amount  of  time  devoted  to  the  detail 
of  didactic  exposition.  In  cases  where  German  cannot  be 
used,  the  work  entitled  "The  Nation,"  by  Elisha  Mulford, 
LL.D.  (New  York,  1877),  may  be  employed  as  a  substitute 
for  Hegel's  "Philosophie  des  Rechts."  In  any  case,  the 
study  of  Dr.  Mulford's  book  is  to  be  most  strongly  urged. 

On  the  history  of  political  philosophy  I  name  the  following 
works :  — 

Paul  Janet,  ' '  Histoire  do  la  Philosophie  morale  et  poli- 
tique  dans  I'antiquite"  et  les  temps  modernes  "  (Paris,  I860; 


OF   THE   STATE   AND   OF   HISTORY.  165 

second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  under  the  title  "  His- 
toire  de  la  science  politique  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  mo- 
rale," 1872) .  This  book  is  clearly  written,  with  an  abundance 
of  French  bon  sens,  and  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  best 
French  type  of  philosophical  spiritualisme.  The  author  con- 
siders no  writer  after  the  time  of  Kant. 

Frederick  Pollock,  "The  History  of  the  Science  of  Poli- 
tics "  (New  York,  1883  ;  No.  42  of  the  "  Humboldt  Library"  ; 
reprinted  from  the  "Fortnightly  Review,"  Aug.,  1882,  to 
Jan.,  1883).  This  little  work  will  be  of  value  in  enabling 
the  student  to  familiarize  himself  with  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  names  prominently  connected  with  the  development 
of  political  philosophy  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  It  is 
most  valuable  for  its  very  sympathetic  exposition  of  the 
doctrine  of  Aristotle  and  its  account  of  the  gist  of  Eng- 
lish discussions.  Spencer  is  excluded  from  the  survej7,  and 
so  are  all  Continental  writers  of  the  last  hundred  years. 

J.  C.  Bluntschli,  "  Geschichte  der  neueren  Staatswissen- 
schaft.  Allgemeines  Staatsrecht  und  Politik  seit  dem  16. 
Jahrhundert  bis  zur  Gegenwart"  (Leipzig  &  Miinchen, 
third  ed.,  1881).  This  book,  as  the  title  indicates,  deals 
only  with  the  political  philosophy  of  modern  times.  In 
treating  of  Hegel's  "  Philosophic  des  Rechts,"  the  author  is 
so  stern  to  point  out  its  confessed  limitations,  that  the  reader 
is  in  danger  of  being  blinded  to  the  fact  of  the  far-reach- 
ing identity,  in  point  of  substantial  content,  which  subsists 
between  the  fundamental  conceptions  of  the  critic  himself 
and  of  him  who  is  the  object  of  his  criticism. 

Passing  now  to  the  philosophy  of  history,  I  am  unable  to 
give  any  counsel  founded  on  personal  experience  or  observa- 
tion. If  one  were  disposed  to  repeat  or  imitate  the  method 
suggested  above,  one  might,  I  should  suppose,  well  begin 
with  Buckle's  "History  of  Civilization  in  England."  Though 


166        THE   PHILOSOPHY  OF   STATE   AND   HISTORY. 

the  field  chosen  for  consideration  in  this  work  is  restricted  to 
England,  yet  this  need  not  be  a  drawback.  It  may  the  rather 
be  even  an  advantage,  since  it  enables  the  student  to  judge 
the  value  and  adequacy  of  the  purely  "mechanical  concep- 
tion" for  the  philosophic  comprehension  of  history,  applied 
in  a  field  with  which  he  is  likely  to  be  more  familiar  than 
with  any  other  outside  his  own  country. 

I  name  as  a  work,  in  which  the  whole  course  of  human 
history  is  treated  from  the  materialistic  point  of  view,  F.  von 
Hellwald's  "  Culturgeschichte  in  ihrer  natiirlichen  Entwicke- 
lung  bis  zur  Gegenwart." 

Advancing  now  to  the  other,  and,  as  I  call  it,  larger  point 
of  view,  to  that  of  the  organic  conception  of  human  history, 
I  should  take  up  the  "  Philosophic  der  Geschichte  "  of  Hegel. 
Of  this  work  a  fairly  good  translation  has  been  furnished  by 
J.  Sibree,  A.M.  ("  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  History," 
in  Bohn's  "Philosophical  Library,"  London,  1861).  The 
most  considerable  systematic  elaboration  that  the  subject, 
so  far  as  I  have  noticed,  has  received  since  the  time  of 
Hegel,  is  contained  in  Conrad  Hermann's  "Philosophic  der 
Geschichte  "  (Leipzig,  1870).  A  work  of  still  broader  scope 
and  treatment  is  M.  Carriere's  "  Die  Kunst  im  Zusammer- 
hang  der  Culturentwickelung  "  (Leipzig,  1863-1871). 

Robert  Flint,  in  ' '  The  Philosophy  of  History  in  France 
and  Germany"  (London,  1874),  gives  a  critical  review  of 
French  and  German  works  relating  to  our  subject.  He  is, 
in  my  judgment,  most  successful  in  his  appreciation  of  the 
efforts  of  the  French  and  of  some  of  the  earlier  Germans. 
The  best  German  philosophy  is  beyond  him. 


THE  COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  HISTORY,  ROMAN 

LAW,  AND  POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  AT 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY.1 


BY  HENRY  E.  SCOTT,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY. 


A   DESCRIPTION  of   the  ground  covered  and  of   the 
methods  used  in  the  various  courses  in  History  and 
Political  Science  at  Harvard  must  necessarily  be  preceded  by 
a  brief  statement  of  the  circumstances  under  which  these 
studies  are  pursued  there. 

In  the  first  place,  all  the  courses  offered  in  these  branches 
—  and  in  almost  all  other  branches  as  well  —  are  purely  elec- 
tive. The  University  requires  each  year  a  certain  amount 
of  work  from  every  undergraduate  who  is  a  candidate  for  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  about 
two-fifths  of  the  work  of  the  Freshman  year,  and  certain 
prescribed  written  exercises  in  English  in  the  Sophomore, 
Junior  and  Senior  years,  the  undergraduate  has  full  liberty 
to  select  any  course  in  any  subject  which  his  previous  train- 
ing qualifies  him  to  pursue.  The  courses  in  History  and  in 
Political  Science  may  therefore  be  elected  by  any  under- 
graduate, by  the  Freshman  as  well  as  by  the  Senior ;  and 
they  are  also,  it  may  be  added,  open  to  the  students  of  the 
various  professional  schools  embraced  in  the  University,  to 
resident  graduates,  and  to  special  students  whether  graduates 
or  not. 

1  In  the  preparation  of  the  following  article,  the  writer  has  been  greatly 
assisted  by  the  instructors  in  the  several  courses  described,  and  their  state- 
ments have  been  incorporated  in  the  text  with  but  little  change. 


168  COURSES   OF    STUDY   IN   HISTORY 

In  order  to  provide  suitable  recognition  for  those  students 
who  have  confined  their  college  work  to  one  or  two  special 
fields,  Honors  of  two  grades  —  Honors  and  Highest  Honors 
—  are  awarded  at  graduation  in  almost  all  branches  in  which 
instruction  is  offered.  The  candidate  for  Honors  in  History 
or  in  Political  Science  must  have  taken  in  the  department 
selected  six  full  courses  or  their  equivalent,  i.e.,  he  must 
have  devoted  to  it  about  one-half  of  his  last  three  years  as 
an  undergraduate,  four  full  courses  or  their  equivalent  being 
the  amount  of  elective  work  required  each  year  of  Sopho- 
mores, Juniors,  and  Seniors  ;  and  he  must  have  passed  with 
great  credit  the  regular  examinations  in  those  courses,  and 
also,  shortly  before  Commencement,  a  special  examination 
covering  all  the  six  courses  in  question.  Students  who  do 
not  care  to  specialize  to  the  extent  necessary  to  obtain 
Honors  can  yet,  by  doing  creditably  about  one-half  as  much 
work  (i.e.,  by  taking  three  full  courses)  in  any  one  subject, 
receive  at  graduation  Honorable  Mention  in  that  subject. 

To  pursue  with  advantage  studies  in  History  or  in  Political 
Science,  the  student  must  have  easy  access  to  books  ;  and, 
in  order  to  place  within  his  reach  the  principal  sources,  au- 
thorities, and  other  helps  necessary  for  the  study  of  a  given 
course,  the  system  of  "reserved  books"  was  established 
some  years  ago  in  the  Harvard  College  Library.  The  in- 
structors in  the  various  departments  request  the  Library 
authorities  to  place  upon  the  shelves  of  certain  alcoves,  as- 
signed for  this  purpose  in  the  reading-room  of  the  Library, 
the  books  used  by  their  classes  for  collateral  reading  and 
reference.  The  books  thus  reserved  can  be  taken  from  the 
shelves  by  the  students  themselves  without  the  formality  of 
oral  or  written  orders,  and  can  be  consulted  in  the  Library 
during  the  day.  At  the  close  of  library  hours,  they  may, 
if  properly  charged,  be  taken  out  for  the  ensuing  night  only, 


AT   HARVARD   UNIVERSITY.  169 

the  borrowers  promising  to  return  them  at  9  A.M.  the  next 
day.  The  right  to  use  the  reserved  books  is  not  limited  to 
those  students  who  take  the  particular  course  for  which  cer- 
tain books  have  been  reserved,  but  all  persons  entitled  to  the 
privileges  of  the  Library  are  likewise  entitled  to  use  all  the 
reserved  books,  the  purpose  of  the  system  being  not  to  with- 
draw the  works  from  general  use  for  the  benefit  of  a  narrow 
circle,  but  rather  so  to  regulate  their  use  that  the  greatest 
possible  number  of  students  may  be  able  to  consult  them. 
Persons  engaged  in  special  investigations  can,  if  necessary, 
obtain  cards  of  admission  to  the  shelves  where  the  material 
they  wish  to  use  is  stored ;  but,  for  the  ordinary  student, 
the  reserved  books,  together  with  those  ordered  from  the 
Library  in  the  usual  way,  are  sufficient. 

The  courses  of  instruction  which  are  now  to  be  described 
are  classified  —  as  are  all  courses  offered  in  the  College  —  as 
courses  or  half -courses,  according  to  the  amount  of  work  re- 
quired of  the  student  and  the  number  of  exercises  a  week,  a 
course  having  either  three  or  two  exercises  a  week,  a  half- 
course  either  two  or  one.1  Some  of  the  courses  are  given 
every  year,  others  every  two  years,  others  twice  in  three 
years.  The  more  advanced  courses  can  be  taken  only  by 
special  permission  of  the  instructors,  to  obtain  which  stu- 
dents must  give  evidence  of  their  ability  to  do  the  work 
expected  of  them.  There  are  announced  this  year  (1884- 
85)  in  the  official  pamphlet  sixteen  courses  and  two  half- 
courses  in  History,  one  course  and  two  half -courses  in  Roman 
Law,  and  four  courses  and  four  half-courses  in  Political 
Economy.  There  are  actually  given  this  year  eleven  courses 
and  two  half-courses  in  History,  one  course  in  Roman  Law, 
and  four  courses  and  three  half-courses  in  Political  Economy, 

1  In  the  following  description  the  half-courses  are  especially  designated 
as  such. 


170  COURSES   OF   STUDY   IN    HISTORY 

the  remaining  courses  being  omitted  in  accordance  with  the 
arrangements  mentioned  above  or  for  special  reasons.  The 
average  number  of  hours  of  instruction  per  week  devoted 
this  year  to  History  is  thirty  ;  to  Roman  Law,  three  ;  to  Politi- 
cal Economy,  fifteen. 

THE  COURSES  IN  HISTORY. 

The  courses  in  History  are  not  laid  out  on  the  assumption 
that  any  one  student  will  elect  all  or  even  the  greater  part  of 
them.  They  are  themselves  an  historical  growth  rather  than 
the  result  of  a  scheme.  New  courses  have  been  added  from 
time  to  time  as  the  needs  of  the  students  and  the  means  of 
the  College  warranted,  each  course  as  a  rule  covering  a 
field  which  some  unity  of  interest  or  some  series  of  related 
movements  seemed  to  mark  out  as  suitable  ground  for  con- 
nected study.  Courses  so  built  up  must  inevitably  cross 
each  other  at  various  points,  with  an  appearance  of  more  or 
less  confusion  ;  nevertheless  it  is  believed  they  are  better 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  students  than  a  more  systemati- 
cally arranged  list  would  be. 

HISTORY  1  (Mediaeval  and  Modern  European  History,  two 
hours  a  week,  Assistant-Professor  MACVANE)  is  an  elemen- 
tary course  serving  as  an  introduction  to  Courses  7,  8,  9,  10, 
and  1 1 ,  and  covering  the  history  of  Europe  from  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  In  so  wide  a  field,  the  work  is  necessarily 
of  a  very  general  character,  the  principal  aim  being  to  trace 
as  clearly  as  possible  the  changes  and  stages  through  which 
Europe  has  passed  in  reaching  its  modern  condition.  The 
only  countries  for  which  a  connected  outline  of  political  his- 
tory is  attempted  are  England,  France,  and  Germany. 

The  course  is  designed  for  two  classes  of  students :  first, 
for  those  who  intend  to  give  a  considerable  amount  of  atten- 
tion to  history  while  in  college  ;  for  these  it  serves  as  an 


AT  HARVARD   UNIVERSITY.  171 

introduction,  as  a  general  view  of  the  whole  field  of  mediae- 
val and  modern  history  ;  they  are  enabled  to  enter  later  on 
the  study  of  selected  portions  or  periods  with  some  feel- 
ing of  acquaintance  with  the  surroundings.  They  also  get 
some  practice  in  using  historical  books  and  in  dealing  with 
historical  terms  and  ideas.  Secondly,  the  course  is  designed 
for  students  whose  serious  college  work  lies  in  other  depart- 
ments, who  yet  wish  to  acquire  some  general  knowledge  of 
history.  There  is,  for  the  most  part,  no  text-book,  nor  is 
there  any  attempt  at  recitations.  Several  books  are  usually 
designated  for  each  country  or  period :  and  each  student  is 
allowed  to  choose  from  these  the  one  best  suited  to  his  aims 
or  to  the  amount  of  time  at  his  disposal  for  the  work.  A 
certain  portion  of  ground  is  laid  out  in  advance  for  each  ex- 
ercise ;  and  the  instructor  goes  over  this  in  a  general  way 
with  the  class,  answering  questions,  pointing  out  relations 
and  connections,  explaining  terms,  and  bringing  into  promi- 
nence the  more  important  points  of  the  narrative.  A  good 
deal  of  attention  is  given  to  historical  geography. 

HISTORY  2  (Constitutional  Government  in  England  and 
the  United  States,  three  hours  a  week  for  the  first  half-}'ear, 
counting  as  a  half -course,  Assistant-Professor  MACVANE)  is 
designed  as  an  introduction  to  Courses  12,  13,  and  14,  i.e., 
to  the  study  of  modern  constitutional  government.  Atten- 
tion is  chiefly  directed  to  the  present  condition  and  prac- 
tical working  of  English  and  American  institutions  ;  but  the 
more  prominent  features  of  the  French  and  German  constitu- 
tions are  also  noted.  The  comparative  method  is  followed 
wherever  possible.  The  work  done  in  the  class-room  is 
a  combination  of  lecture  and  conference.  Each  member  of 
the  class  is  expected  to  procure  either  Anios's  "  Primer  of 
the  English  Constitution"  or  Fonblanque's  "How  we  are 
Governed " ;  and  a  pamphlet  is  printed  for  the  use  of  the 


172  COURSES   OF   STUDY   IN   HISTORY 

class,  containing  a  syllabus  of  the  course,  together  with  the 
Articles  of  Confederation,  the  Constitution,  and  a  number 
of  selections  from  books,  magazine  articles,  etc.  The  main 
objects  in  view  are  to  prepare  students  for  the  profitable 
study  of  American  and  of  modern  European  histor3-,  and  to 
awaken  an  intelligent  interest  in  the  problems  of  constitu- 
tional government,  both  here  and  in  other  countries. 

HISTORY  3.  Roman  History  to  the  Fall  of  the  Republic, 
with  especial  reference  to  the  Development  of  Political  In 
stitutions  in  Greece  and  Rome,  two  hours  a  week. 

HISTORY  4.  Later  Roman  and  Early  Mediaeval  History 
(from  Augustus  to  Charlemagne) ,  with  especial  reference  to 
institutions,  two  or  three  hours  a  week  (at  the  pleasure  of 
the  instructor). 

HISTORY  8.  Constitutional  and  Legal  History  of  France 
to  the  Sixteenth  Century,  two  or  three  hours  a  week  (at  the 
pleasure  of  the  instructor) . 

These  courses  (all  of  them  given  by  Professor  GURNEY)  , 
while  covering  each  a  period  having  a  distinct  and  independ- 
ent interest  of  its  own,  are  designed  to  furnish  in  their  se- 
quence a  study  of  the  development  of  society,  of  political, 
legal,  and  economic  institutions,  and  in  outline,  too,  of  moral 
and  intellectual  conditions  as  manifested  in  religious  beliefs, 
philosophy,  and  literature,  from  the  cradle  of  patriarchal 
existence  among  the  ancestors  of  the  Greeks  and  Italians 
to  the  old  age  of  a  Byzantine  civilization  ;  and,  again,  to  the 
repetition  of  this  development  under  the  greatly  changed  con- 
ditions produced  by  the  legacies  of  Mediterranean  civiliza- 
tion, from  the  primitive  German  society  described  by  Caesar 
and  Tacitus  to  the  reflection  of  imperial  Rome  which  may 
be  traced  in  the  administration,  law,  literature,  and  art  of 
France  in  the  time  of  the  early  Renaissance. 

In  Course  3  this  development  is  followed  for  the  Roman 


AT  HABVABD  UNIVEBSITY.  173 

state  from  the  first  glimpses  which  we  obtain,  by  the  aid  of 
philology,  of  its  Indo-European  ancestors  to  the  point  at 
which,  after  the  conquest  of  the  ancient  world,  the  overtaxed 
energies  of  municipal  government  succumb,  and  the  repub- 
lican type  of  rule  begins  to  merge  in  the  imperial.  Though 
the  history  proper  of  Greece  forms  no  part  of  this  course, 
the  political  and  legal  institutions  of  the  Greeks,  especially 
the  Spartan  and  Athenian  constitutions,  and,  at  a  later  day, 
the  first  serious  efforts  of  men  at  federation  in  the  Achaean 
League,  are  all  treated  in  detail  for  the  light  they  throw  upon 
the  parallel  Roman  development.  A  secondary  object  of 
Course  3  is  to  qualify  a  student  of  the  classics  to  read  a 
book  of  Livy,  or  a  public  oration  of  Demosthenes,  with 
somewhat  the  same  background  of  information  with  which 
he  would  take  up  Bancroft  or  Burke. 

Course  4,  which  deals  with  the  whole  period  from  Au- 
gustus to  Charlemagne,  falls  naturally  into  two  parts ;  in 
one  of  which,  ending  perhaps  as  well  at  the  death  of  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great  as  at  any  other  point,  the  interest  continues 
predominately  Roman,  and  the  development  of  society  is  in 
every  sense  the  sequel  of  Course  3  ;  in  the  other  the  interest 
is  predominately  German ;  the  subject  of  study  is  German 
institutions,  and  the  processes  and  results  of  the  combina- 
tions of  these  with  existent  Roman  institutions  and  tenden- 
cies within  the  territories  of  the  Empire,  and  especially  in 
Gaul.  Either  half  of  this  course  may  easily  be  pursued 
separately. 

In  Course  8,  an  investigation  is  made  of  the  centrifugal 
forces  which  led  to  the  disruption  of  the  Carolingian  Empire, 
and  to  the  dispersion  of  authority  which  we  know  as  the 
Feudal  System.  Upon  a  study  of  the  institutions  and  work 
jng  of  that  system  in  France,  follows  naturally  the  main 
subject  of  the  course,  the  gradual  reassertion  of  the  royal 


174  COURSES   OF   STUDY   IN   HISTORY 

authority  over  ever  wider  territory,  and  to  ever  more  complete 
exclusion  of  all  other  authority,  until  the  irresistible  control 
of  Louis  XI.  and  his  successors  is  reached,  and,  in  large 
measure  on  the  lines  of  Roman  models,  the  framework  is 
erected  for  the  still  more  perfect  structure  of  absolutism  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

As  these  courses  cover  long  periods  of  time  —  some  seven 
hundred  years  each  —  the  student  is  not  expected  to  acquire 
a  detailed  knowledge  of  events.  An  account  is  given  him 
of  the  best  books  accessible,  great  and  small,  upon  the  whole 
period  and  parts  of  it ;  but  the  scale  on  which  he  conducts 
his  reading  is  left  to  his  taste  and  discretion.  The  instructor, 
from  time  to  time,  tries  to  aid  the  student  in  acquiring  a  just 
historical  perspective  by  remarks  upon  the  relative  import- 
ance of  events,  and  upon  such  connections  between  them  as 
might  easily  be  missed  ;  but,  otherwise,  he  does  not  concern 
himself  with  the  narrative  history,  except  when  consulted. 
The  chief  original  authorities  are  mentioned  and  character- 
ized, but  no  investigations  in  them  are  demanded.  The 
history  of  institutions,  on  the  other  hand,  is  given  by  the 
instructor  in  informal  lectures,  with  constant  opportunity 
and  encouragement  for  interruption  on  the  part  of  the  stu- 
dent for  questions  and  discussion.  The  best  works  on  the 
subject  are  described  and  reserved  in  the  Library  for  the 
student's  use ;  but  for  this  part  of  the  course  he  may,  if  he 
chooses,  rely  on  the  lectures  alone.  As  these  courses  are 
conducted  for  the  general  student  of  history,  no  work  upon 
the  sources,  Greek,  Latin,  or  old  French,  could  wisely  be 
exacted.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  subsidiary  half-courses 
may  be  connected  with  them,  so  that  properly  qualified 
students  may  have  opportunitj*  and  encouragement  to  be- 
come themselves  investigators. 

In  HISTORY  7  (The  General  History  of  Europe  from  tha 


AT   HARVARD  UNIVERSITY.  175 

beginning  of  the  Ninth  to  the  end  of  the  Thirteenth  Century, 
two  hours  a  week,  Mr.  SCOTT)  the  title  does  not  state  cor- 
rectly the  chronological  limits  of  the  course,  or  the  ground 
covered  by  it.  It  really  deals  with  the  political  and  consti- 
tutional history  of  Continental  Europe  from  the  rise  of  the 
Carolingian  line  of  Prankish  kings  to  the  fjp.ll  of  the  emperors 
of  the  House  of  Staufen,  England  being  omitted  entirely, 
and  France,  too,  receiving  but  little  attention  in  comparison 
with  Germany  and  Italy,  since  both  England  and  France  are 
provided  for  in  special  courses.  As  a  necessary  introduction, 
a  rapid  survey  is  taken  of  the  institutions  of  the  primitive 
Germans ;  and  this  is  followed  by  a  more  detailed  account 
of  the  constitutional  and  legal  system  that  arose  from  the 
mixture  of  German  and  Roman  elements  in  the  kingdom  of 
the  Merovingians.  With  the  Carolingian  period  the  real 
work  of  the  course  begins,  the  Frankish  Monarchy  and  the 
Mediaeval  Empire  forming  naturally  the  centres  of  interest 
around  which  the  remaining  historical  phenomena  are  grouped. 
In  the  class-room,  the  instructor  endeavors  to  call  attention 
to  the  points  of  view  from  which  the  events  under  considera- 
tion may  be  most  advantageously  studied,  and  to  the  relation 
in  which  these  events  stand  to  those  that  have  gone  before 
and  to  those  that  are  to  follow  ;  but  the  details  of  political 
history  are  usually  left  to  be  worked  out  by  the  students  them- 
selves, while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  development  of  institu- 
tions is  treated  at  length  by  means  of  lectures.  An  account 
of  the  principal  sources  for  the  history  of  each  period  is 
given,  the  most  valuable  modern  works  are  mentioned,  and 
specific  references  are  made,  from  time  to  time,  to  these 
works 'and  to  important  historical  articles  in  periodicals. 
The  students  are  questioned  frequently  and  encouraged  to 
ask  questions,  in  order  that  the  instructor  ma}*  satisfy  him- 
self of  the  nature  of  their  work,  and  that  any  special  diffi- 
culties which  they  meet  may  be,  if  possible,  removed. 


176  COURSES  or  STUDY  IN  HISTORY 

HISTORY  9  (three  hours  a  week,  Assistant-Professor  YOUNG) 
takes  up  the  Constitutional  and  Legal  History  of  England 
to  the  Sixteenth  Century.  The  work  in  the  class-room  con- 
sists of  lectures  by  the  instructor,  and  of  translations  and 
explanations  of  extracts  from  Stubbs'  "  Select  Charters," 
which,  together  with  Stubbs'  "  Constitutional  History,"  may 
be  said  tt>  serve  as  a  text-book.  Students  are  also  encouraged, 
but  not  required,  to  write  theses  on  special  topics. 

The  lecturer  treats  the  whole  subject  by  periods  (Primitive 
Germany  ;  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Prankish,  Norman,  and  Anglo- 
Norman  periods  ;  Henry  II.  to  John  ;  Magna  Carta  ;  Henry 
III.  and  Edward  I.  ;  Edward  I.  to  Henry  VII.)  and  by  topics 
"within  each  period,  the  study  of  each  period  being  preceded 
by  a  general  bibliography  of  that  period,  and  of  each  topic 
by  a  special  bibliography  of  that  topic.  The  references  for 
collateral  reading  are  of  two  sorts,  those  which  every  student 
is  expected  to  read  as  a  preparation  for  examination,  and 
those  designed  for  students  who  take  a  special  interest  in  any 
topic,  and  wish  to  make  it  the  subject  of  special  study. 

The  object  of  the  lectures  is  (1)  to  give  a  more  detailed 
account  of  some  subjects  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  ordinary 
text-books  (for  example,  of  the  institutions  of  the  primitive 
Germans ;  the  classes  of  society  and  influence  of  the  land- 
system  on  the  social  development  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  ; 
the  Prankish  and  Norman  development ;  the  legal  reforms  of 
Henry  II.  ;  the  reception  of  the  Roman  law  in  England,  etc.)  ; 
(2)  to  give  a  different  view  of  some  subjects  from  that  taken 
by  the  English  writers  (for  example,  of  the  effect  of  the  Nor- 
man Conquest  on  English  constitutional  development)  ;  (3)  to 
arrange  the  subject-matter  in  a  more  convenient  form. 

Of  the  documents  contained  in  Stubbs'  "  Charters,"  sub- 
stantially all  to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  are  read 
(some  of  the  special  customs,  some  of  the  historical  extracts 
and  the  Dialogue  de  Scaccario  are  omitted),  together  with 


AT   HARVARD   UNIVERSITY.  177 

selections  from  the  documents  of  the  reigns  of  Richard  I., 
John,  Henry  III.,  and  Edward  I. 

HISTORY  6  (The  Legal  Institutions  of  the  Franks  and  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  two  hours  a  week,  Assistant-Prof  essor  YOUNG)  , 
an  advanced  course  in  mediaeval  institutions,  is  designed  (1) 
to  teach  the  student  the  methods,  and  to  acquaint  him  with 
the  results  so  far  attained  of  the  new  science  of  "  Early 
Comparative  Jurisprudence  "  ;  and  for  this  purpose  the  fol- 
lowing topics  are  studied :  Origin  of  the  family,  of  the  state, 
of  law,  of  courts,  of  judicial  procedure,  of  criminal  law,  of 
property,  and  of  contract ;  (2)  to  show  the  results  so  far 
attained  by  students  of  early  German  and  Prankish  law,  and 
the  methods  used  to  attain  them.  In  this  connection,  a  study 
is  made  of  legal  sources,  courts,  procedure,  criminal  law, 
family  law  and  law  of  inheritance,  law  of  property,  and  law 
of  contract ;  the  Frankish  legal  sources,  and  especially  the 
Lex  Salica  and  the  Capitula  legi  Salicae  addita  being  critically 
examined  in  the  class  ;  (3)  to  apply  the  knowledge  thus  ob- 
tained of  methods  and  results  to  the  study  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  law.  As  this  is  a  course  for  advanced  and  special 
study,  every  student  is  required  to  write  a  thesis  on  some 
topic  of  Anglo-Saxon  law,  a  thesis  based  upon  an  inde- 
pendent examination  of  Anglo-Saxon  legal  sources. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  course  may  some  time  be  extended  to 
include  the  Norman  and  the  Anglo-Norman  institutions.  It 
is  given  from  a  conviction  that  English  legal  history  is  yet 
to  be  written,  that  this  cannot  be  done  until  many  special 
investigations  have  been  made,  and  that  these  can  profitably 
be  made  only  by  those  familiar  with  the  methods  and  results 
of  the  Germanists. 

HISTORY  5  [CHURCH  HISTORY  1].  The  Conflict  of  Chris- 
tianity with  Paganism  to  the  Eighth  Century,  two  hours  a 
week. 

HISTORY  10  [CHURCH  HISTORY  2],     History  of   the  Pro- 


178  COURSES   OF   STUDY   IN   HISTORY 

testant  Reformation  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Reaction,  two 
hours  a  week. 

CHURCH  HISTORY  3.  History  of  Christian  Doctrines,  two 
hours  a  week. 

HISTORY  17  [CHURCH  HISTORY  4].  Practice  in  the  Study 
and  Use  of  Historical  Sources,  once  a  week  (two  hours) . 

These  four  courses,  given  by  Professor  EMERTON,  are,  in 
so  far  as  they  deal  with  ecclesiastical  history,  arranged  with 
a  view  (1)  to  separate  as  far  as  possible  the  History  of 
Doctrines  from  that  of  the  outward  life  of  the  Church,  and 
(2)  to  bring  out  into  prominence  the  critical  moments  in  this 
outward  life  rather  than  to  attempt  an}'  comprehensive  review 
of  the  whole  subject.  Course  5  deals  with  the  formative 
period  of  Christianity.  The  purpose  here  is  to  show  how 
the  church  organization  grew  up  with  the  empire  until  the 
two  became  co-extensive,  then  to  connect  the  Germanic  in- 
fluence in  the  empire  with  the  form  taken  by  the  Church  in 
the  life  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  reign  of  Charlemagne, 
in  which  these  various  tendencies  reach  the  form  the}-  were 
to  maintain  during  the  whole  following  mediaeval  period, 
properly  closes  this  course. 

Course  10  treats  of  the  second  great  critical  period,  when 
the  forms  of  mediaeval  are  changing  to  those  of  modern 
society.  Beginning  with  the  awakening  energ\-  of  the  indi- 
vidual mind  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  various  phases  of 
this  revival  in  literature,  art,  law,  commerce,  politics,  and 
religion  are  treated  as  preparing  the  way  for  the  protest  of 
Luther.  The  religious  revolt  is  traced  from  its  earliest  signs 
in  the  Italian  Humanists,  through  Wiclif,  Hus,  Savonarola, 
and  the  Mystics,  to  Luther  and  Calvin.  Finally,  the  reac- 
tion of  Rome  against  the  Reform,  as  shown  in  the  Order  of 
Jesuits,  the  Inquisition,  and  the  Council  of  Trent,  is  followed 
to  the  point  where  the  conditions  of  modern  Church  History 
appear  firmly  established. 


AT  HARVARD   UNIVERSITY.  179 

Church  History  3  is  confined  strictly  to  the  history  of  doc- 
trines, presupposing  a  general  knowledge  of  the  progress  of 
the  Church  as  an  organization.  But  as  in  the  earlier  courses 
frequent  reference  to  the  doctrinal  development  was  neces- 
sary, so  here  the  student  is  constantly  reminded  of  the  reac- 
tion of  politics  upon  the  doctrine.  It  is  believed  that  in  this 
way  a  more  thorough  understanding  of  the  essential  connec- 
tion between  these  two  phases  of  church  life  can  be  gained 
than  by  attempting  to  treat  them  both  at  once,  with  the  risk 
of  continual  confusion.  The  system  of  doctrines  is  con- 
sidered as  a  development  through  the  efforts  of  men  to  reach 
a  solution  of  the  problems  suggested  or  revived  by  the  teach- 
ing of  Jesus. 

All  of  these  courses  are  conducted  by  means  of  lectures 
with  occasional  oral  reviews,  and,  in  Courses  10  and  Church 
History  3,  with  the  writing  of  theses  upon  topics  connected 
with  the  course,  selected  by  the  student  and  approved  by  the 
instructor. 

History  17  is  a  practice -course  on  the  principle  of  the 
German  Seminarium.  Its  purpose  is  to  introduce  the  stu- 
dent into  the  methods  of  historical  investigation  and  com- 
position. The  work  consists  mainly  of  inquiry  into  points 
of  historical  detail  from  original  sources,  together  with  the 
interpretation  of  some  original  document  before  the  class. 

In  HISTORY  11  (European  History  during  the  Seventeenth 
Century  and  the  first  half  of  the  Eighteenth,  three  hours  a 
week,  Assistant  Professor  MACVANE)  attention  is  mainly 
confined  to  England,  France,  and  Germany.  English  affairs 
occupy  about  half  of  the  time.  No  uniform  method  of  in- 
struction is  followed  in  all  parts  of  the  course,  the  instructor 
holding  that,  in  teaching  history,  method  must  depend  partly 
on  the  nature  of  the  period  and  topic  under  treatment,  partly 
on  the  quality  of  the  books  and  other  helps  available  for 
the  students,  partly  on  the  size  and  character  of  the 


180  COURSES   OF   STUDY   IN   HISTORY 

In  the  main,  the  class-room  exercises  in  this  course  are 
designed  to  open  up  the  field,  to  bring  into  relief  the  more 
important  features  of  it,  and  to  aid  the  members  of  the  class 
with  suggestions  as  to  their  reading.  An  effort  is  made  to 
show  the  significance  of  the  great  social,  political,  and  relig- 
ious movements  of  each  period,  to  bring  historical  events  as 
far  as  possible  into  living  connection  with  their  causes,  and 
to  point  out  from  time  to  time  the  manner  in  which  the  move- 
ments of  one  country  have  reacted  on  the  affairs  of  other 
countries.  Special  study  is  given  to  the  growth  and  working 
of  institutions,  especially  in  England,  Hallam's  "Constitu- 
tional Histor}'"  (beginning  with  Chapter  VI.)  forming  an 
integral  part  of  the  course.  References  are  given  from  time 
to  time  to  the  most  notable  passages  in  the  works  reserved 
in  the  Library  for  the  use  of  the  class,  the  aim  here  being  as 
much  to  beget  an  acquaintance  with  historical  literature  and 
a  taste  for  the  study  of  it,  as  to  aid  in  the  present  acquisition 
of  historical  knowledge. 

HISTORY  12  (European  History  from  the  Middle  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  three  hours  a  week,  Assistant  Profes- 
sor MACVANE)  is,  in  all  essential  respects,  a  continuation  of 
Course  11,  and  is  conducted  on  the  same  general  plan.  The 
proportions  are  different,  however,  considerably  more  time 
being  devoted  to  Continental  history  than  is  the  case  in  1 1 . 
The  institutions  of  the  Old  Regime  in  France ;  the  causes 
and  course  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  of  the  later  changes 
in  France ;  the  effects  of  the  French  Revolution  upon  the 
other  countries  of  Europe  ;  the  German  Federation,  and  the 
recent  reorganization  of  Germany  under  Prussia's  leader- 
ship ;  the  consolidation  of  Italy  into  one  kingdom,  and  the 
changed  position  of  the  Papacy ;  the  growth  of  Russia,  and 
the  varying  phases  of  the  "Eastern  Question";  —  these, 
and  man}'  other  topics,  claim  attention  in  the  attempt  to 
treat  the  recent  history  of  the  Continent.  Time,  however. 


AT   HARVARD   UNIVERSITY.  181 

is  found  to  deal  with  the  chief  incidents  of  English  history 
since  the  accession  of  George  III.  The  attempt  by  George 
III.  to  revive  personal  government,  the  character  and  history 
of  the  various  ministries,  the  full  development  of  cabinet 
government,  the  reform  of  Parliament,  the  reform  of  the 
criminal  laws  and  of  the  judicial  system,  Catholic  Emanci- 
pation, the  Irish  land  question,  and  other  similar  topics,  are 
studied  with  more  or  less  thoroughness. 

In  HISTORY  14  (Forms  of  Government  and  Political  Con- 
stitutions, particularly  in  Continental  Europe,  since  1789,  two 
hours  a  week,  Assistant-Professor  MACVANE  l)  the  various 
constitutions  are  studied  in  connection  with  the  circum- 
stances under  which  they  were  adopted.  Attention  is  given 
to  the  composition  of  the  representative  bodies  ;  the  relations 
between  the  legislative  bodies  and  the  executive  ;  the  methods 
and  extent  of  popular  control  over  the  government ;  the  posi- 
tion of  the  ministers ;  the  progress  of  cabinet  government ; 
parliamentary  procedure  ;  the  relations  between  local  and 
central  authorities ;  the  federal  systems  of  Europe ;  the 
composition  and  jurisdiction  of  the  chief  courts,  etc.  The 
method  of  comparative  study  is  followed ;  the  institutions  of 
each  country  being  brought  into  comparison,  or  contrast,  with 
the  corresponding  institutions  of  other  countries. 

[For  the  courses  in  American  History,  numbered  18  and  13,  see  the 
separate  article  by  the  instructor  on  pp.  1-31.] 

HISTORY  15  (Elements  of  Public  International  Law,  two 
hours  a  week,  Professor  TORREY  ;  Periods  and  Leading  Events 
in  Diplomatic  History,  one  hour  a  week,  Dr.  CHANNING)  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  parts,  —  neither  of  which  can  be  taken 
without  the  other,  —  and  is  designed  for  those  students 
only  who  have  shown  creditable  progress  in  their  previous 

1  For  the  year  18M-85  only.  The  course  is  regularly  given  by  Professor 
TORREY. 


182  COURSES   OF   STUDY   IN   HISTORY 

studies.  As  the  classes  are  small,  a  close  personal  relation 
is  established  between  teachers  and  students. 

In  the  former  part  of  the  course,  the  lectures  take  largely 
the  shape  of  a  free  commentary  on  Woolsey's  "  International 
Law "  ;  but  the  bibliography  of  the  subject  is  treated  at 
length ;  and,  in  dealing  with  the  principles,  the  important 
points  are  illustrated  by  references  to  leading  writers,  — 
such  as  Wheaton,  Twiss,  Hall,  and  Bluntschli,  —  and  by 
extracts  from  their  works.  Particular  attention  is  paid  to 
weighty  decisions  (especially  of  English  and  American 
courts)  ;  questions  in  which  the  United  States  have  been 
involved  are  discussed,  the  manner  of  dealing  with  concrete 
cases  under  the  Constitution  and  laws  is  explained,  and  the 
bearing  of  the  rules  of  International  Law  on  questions  of 
present  interest  is  pointed  out. 

The  second  part  of  the  course  deals  with  the  leading  events 
in  the  diplomatic  history  of  the  last  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years.  An  analysis  of  each  period,  with  a  limited  number  of 
specific  references,  is  written  on  the  board  as  a  foundation 
for  the  student's  reading.  The  lecturer  narrates  the  events 
leading  to  each  important  treaty,  gives  a  bibliography  of  the 
treaty  itself,  together  with  some  biographical  account  of  the 
negotiators,  and  takes  up  in  detail  its  chief  provisions  ;  con- 
siderable use  being  made  of  Woolsey's  valuable  synopsis  of 
political  treaties.  From  the  beginning  of  the  course  geo- 
graphy receives  especial  attention,  and  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  physical  conformation  of  Europe  is  insisted  upon. 
The  last  four  lectures  are  devoted  to  the  territorial  develop- 
ment of  the  United  States,  and  are  given  in  the  College 
Library,  where  contemporary  maps  and  other  material  can 
be  used  for  purposes  of  illustration. 

HISTORY  16  (Studies  in  the  Comparative  History  of  Reli- 
gions, —  particularly  the  Vedic,  the  later  Brahmnnic,  the 
Buddhist,  the  Mazdean,  and  the  Chinese ;  two  hours  a 


AT    HAKVARD   UNIVERSITY.  183 

week,  counting  as  a  half-course,  Professor  EVERETT),  al- 
though property  classified  as  an  historical  course,  might  as 
property  be  called  philosophical ;  for  it  is  realty  a  study 
of  the  philosophy  of  religion.  It  begins  with  a  brief  study 
of  the  religion  of  savages  ;  then  certain  religions  are  treated 
that  have  in  a  marked  degree  a  philosophical  basis,  and  these 
are  grouped  according  to  psychological  relations.  The  at- 
tempt is  made  to  bring  out  the  philosophical  significance  of 
each  religion,  special  attention  being  given  to  Hindu  philos- 
ophy. On  the  other  hand,  the  outward  form,  and,  to  some 
extent,  the  history  of  the  different  religions,  must  be  pre- 
sented ;  and  this  involves  historical  detail. 

The  instruction  is  given  by  means  of  lectures,  supported 
at  ever}'  point  by  reference  to  translations  and  other  author- 
ities ;  the  most  important  of  the  works  referred  to  being 
placed  in  the  reference-room  of  the  Divinity-School  Library. 

THE   COUESES   IN   ROMAN   LAW. 

ROMAN  LAW  1  (History  and  Institutes  of  Roman  Law ; 
Institutes  of  Gains  and  Justinian,  omitting  the  Law  of  In- 
heritance ;  three  hours  a  week,  Assistant- Professor  YOUNG) 
is  an  elementary  course,  covering  the  whole  body  of  Roman 
private  law,  with  the  exception  of  the  Law  of  Inheritance 
(see  ROMAN  LAW  3),  and  mainly  designed  to  give  to  the 
historical  student  some  familiarity  with  fundamental  legal 
notions  (a  familiarity,  the  need  and  value  of  which  will  be 
recognized  by  every  teacher  of  history) .  After  a  brief  ac- 
count of  the  history  of  the  legal  sources,  and  of  the  general 
course  of  Roman  legal  development,  the  instructor,  follow- 
ing the  arrangement  of  topics  adopted  by  Gaius  and  Justin- 
ian, describes  the  historical  development  of  each  legal 
institution,  and  states  the  principal  rules  of  law  relating  to 
it.  The  passages  in  the  Institutes  of  Gaius  and  Justinian 
which  bear  on  the  subject  are  then  translated  and  discussed 


184  COURSES   OF    STUDY    LN    ROMAN    LAW 

in  the  class  (Gneist's  "  Institutionum  et  regularum  juris 
Roraani  syntagma  "  being  used  as  a  text-book) ,  and  refer- 
ences, which  every  student  is  expected  to  read,  are  occasion- 
ally made  to  the  Digest.  Every  student  is  expected  to  follow 
the  course  in  some  elementary  treatise  on  the  subject,  and 
for  this  purpose  the  following  books  are  recommended  :  —  in 
English,  Moyle's  "Institutes"  (much  the  best),  Poste's 
"  Gaius,"  or  Hunter's  "  Roman  Law"  ;  in  French,  the  trea- 
tises of  Maynz  (the  best) ,  Van  Wetter,  or  Demangeat ;  in 
German,  Puchta  or  Marezoll. 

ROMAN  Law  2  (The  Law  of  Property ;  selections  from 
the  Digest ;  one  hour  a  week  counting  as  a  half -course, 
Assistant-Professor  YOUNG)  is  intended  for  advanced  study 
in  some  special  department  of  the  law.  The  subject  of  the 
course  may  be  varied  from  year  to  year,  so  that  a  student 
may  elect  it  in  successive  years,  studying,  for  example,  in 
one  year  the  Law  of  Obligations,  and  in  another  the  Law  of 
Property. 

In  ROMAN  LAW  3  (The  Law  of  Inheritance  ;  Institutes  of 
Gaius  and  Justinian ;  selections  from  the  Digest ;  three 
hours  every  two  weeks,  counting  as  a  half -course,  Professor 
GURNEY)  the  principal  features  of  the  Law  of  Inheritance  are 
studied,  especial  attention  being  given  to  the  Roman  Law  of 
Wills.  The  portions  of  the  Institutes  of  Gaius  and  Justinian 
bearing  on  the  subject  are  first  gone  over  in  the  class-room, 
and  after  the  outlines  of  the  subject  are  thus  fixed,  select 
passages  from  the  Digest  are  assigned  to  be  read  by  the 
class  for  the  purpose  of  filling  up  the  outline  to  the  extent 
that  time  permits,  the  more  difficult  passages  being  inter- 
preted by  the  instructor,  and  the  hours  of  meeting  being 
devoted  to  informal  lectures  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and 
to  questions  and  discussions  on  the  part  of  the  students. 


AT    HARVARD    UNIVERSITY.  185 


THE   COURSES  IN  POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY  1  (Mill's  "  Principles  of  Political 
Economy  " ;  Lectures  on  Banking  and  the  Financial  Legis- 
lation of  the  United  States ;  three  hours  a  week,  Professor 
DUNBAR  and  Assistant-Professor  LAUGHLIN)  is  designed  (1) 
to  provide  for  those  students  who  intend  to  continue  their 
economic  studies  for  more  than  one  year  a  suitable  introduc- 
tion to  the  elementary  principles  of  the  science,  and  their 
application  to  questions  of  practical  interest;  and  (2)  to 
furnish  students  whose  time  is  chiefly  devoted  to  other 
departments  of  study  with  that  general  knowledge  of  and 
training  in  Political  Economy  which  all  men  of  liberal  educa- 
tion should  desire.  It  has,  therefore,  its  theoretical  and  its 
practical  side.  In  the  present  year  (1884-85)  the  new  edi- 
tion of  Mill,  prepared  by  Professor  Laughlin,  serves  as  a 
text-book  for  the  main  part  of  the  course,  and  the  remaining 
time  is  occupied  by  lectures  on  the  elements  of  banking  and 
the  public  finance  of  the  United  States  (especially  in  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century) .  The  instructor  holds  that  for  a  course 
in  the  elements  of  Political  Economy,  where  it  is  eminently 
desirable  that  the  student  should  assimilate  principles  rather 
than  memorize  explanations  of  each  subject,  neither  the  reci- 
tation system  nor  the  lecture  system  is  best  fitted,  but  that  a 
judicious  mixture  of  both  is  necessary  ;  for  the  object  of  the 
instruction  is  in  general  not  merely  to  give  men  facts,  but  to 
lead  them  to  think.  The  text-book  is  supposed  to  furnish  to 
the  student  a  clear  statement  of  the  principles  that  are  to  be 
taken  up  at  a  given  exercise.  Then  in  the  class-room  the 
instructor,  by  questions,  and  by  drawing  the  men  into  dis- 
cussion and  the  free  expression  of  difficulties,  endeavors  as 
much  as  possible  to  fix  the  knowledge  of  principles  in  the 
mind  of  the  students,  and  to  direct  their  attention  to  the 
workings  of  these  principles  in  concrete  cases.  Graphic 


186     COURSES   OF   STUDY   IN   POLITICAL   ECONOMY 

representations  of  facts  (such,  for  example,  as  are  given  by 
the  charts  in  the  text-book  referred  to)  are  often  used  to 
make  the  relation  between  theory  and  practice  still  clearer ; 
and  statements  from  the  newspapers  in  regard  to  economic 
matters  are  sometimes  read  in  the  class-room,  in  order  to  test 
the  student's  ability  in  applying  abstract  principles  to  the 
affairs  of  cvery-day  life.  To  give  the  students  practice  in 
making  accurate  statements,  questions  are  now  and  then 
written  on  the  blackboard  and  answered  in  writing  within 
fifteen  minutes,  and  at  the  next  hour  these  answers  are  criti- 
cised and  discussed. 

In  the  lectures  on  the  elements  of  banking  and  finance  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  year,  the  three  functions  of  banking  — 
deposit,  issue,  and  discount — are  illustrated  by  references 
to  the  system  of  National  Banks,  of  the  old  United  States 
Banks,  and  of  the  Bank  of  England  ;  and  the  sub-treasury 
system,  the  national  debt,  the  methods  of  raising  revenue 
during  the  war,  the  issue  of  legal  tender  paper,  the  resump- 
tion of  specie  payments,  etc.,  are  some  of  the  topics  dis- 
cussed, Professor  Dunbar's  pamphlet  entitled  "  Extracts 
from  the  Laws  of  the  United  States  relating  to  Currency  and 
Finance  "  serving  as  a  basis  for  the  lectures  on  finance. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY  2  (History  of  Economic  Theory  — 
Examination  of  Selections  from  Leading  Writers,  three 
hours  a  week,  Professor  DUNBAR)  was  in  former  years  con- 
ducted by  taking  up,  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  year,  Cairnes's 
"  Leading  Principles,"  and,  in  the  later  part,  some  book  of 
which  the  discussion  and  criticism  would  bring  out  more 
clearly  the  meaning  of  the  generally  accepted  doctrines. 
Carey's  "Social  Science,"  George's  "Progress  and  Pov- 
erty," Shadwell's  ' '  Principles  "  —  books  which  put  the 
' '  orthodox  "  student  in  a  defensive  attitude  —  were  used 
for  this  purpose.  In  addition,  lectures  were  given  on  the 
history  of  political  economy,  and  on  examples  of  the  work- 


AT    HARVARD   UNIVERSITY.  187 

ing  in  practice  of  its  principles,  such  as  the  working  of 
the  principles  of  international  trade  in  the  payment  of 
the  Franco-German  indemnity  in  1871-73,  the  commercial 
crisis  of  1857,  etc. 

For  the  present  year  (1884-85)  the  course  is  remodelled. 
Nothing  in  the  nature  of  a  text-book  is  used.  The  subject 
is  treated  by  topics.  Such  questions  as  the  wages-fund  con- 
troversy, the  theory  of  international  trade,  the  method  of 
political  economy,  the  theory  of  value,  are  to  be  taken  up  in 
succession.  On  each  topic  references  to  leading  writers  will 
be  submitted  to  the  students  for  examination  and  discussion. 
On  the  wages-fund  question,  for  example,  Mill's  retractation 
iu  the  "Fortnightly  Review"  of  his  original  views,  Cairnes's 
restatement  of  the  theory,  F.  A.  Walker's  position  as  found 
in  his  "Wages  Question"  and  his  "Political  Economy," 
George's  criticism  of  current  views  in  "Progress  and  Pov- 
erty "  will  be  read  and  discussed.  The  history  of  political 
economy  is  to  be  taken  up  in  a  similar  way,  by  reference  to 
characteristic  extracts  from  the  writings  of  the  Physiocrats, 
Adam  Smith,  Malthus,  Ricardo,  Senior,  Say,  Bastiat,  and 
their  successors  and  critics  in  England  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent. These  extracts,  read  beforehand  by  the  students 
and  discussed  in  the  class-room,  will  be  supplemented  by  the 
comments  and  explanations  of  the  instructor.  By  this  method 
it  is  hoped  that  some  familiarity  with  the  literature  of  the 
subject  will  be  obtained,  as  well  as  a  more  exact  comprehen- 
sion of  its  doctrines  than  can  come  from  an  elementary  study 
like  that  of  Course  1. 

In  POLITICAL  ECONOMY  3  (Discussion  of  Practical  Eco- 
nomic Questions  —  Lectures  and  Theses,  three  hours  a  week, 
Assistant-Professor  LAUGHLIN)  it  is  expected  that  the  stu- 
dent, who  is  supposed  now  to  have  grasped  firmly  the  general 
principles  of  political  economy  by  at  least  one  year's  previous 
study,  will  apply  these  principles  to  the  work  of  examining 


188     COURSES   OF    STUDY   IN   POLITICAL   ECONOMY 

some  of  the  prominent  questions  of  the  day,  such  as  the 
navigation  laws  and  American  shipping,  bimetallism,  reci- 
procity with  Canada,  government  and  national  bank  issues, 
etc.  At  the  beginning  of  each  topic  a  general  outline  of  the 
subject  and  its  principal  divisions  is  given  b}'  the  instructor, 
together  with  more  or  less  particular  references  to  the  most 
important  authorities ;  but  a  complete  list  of  books  is  not 
always  furnished,  the  student  being  rather  encouraged  to 
hunt  for  material  himself.  The  exercise  in  the  class-room 
takes  the  form  rather  of  a  "discussion  than  a  formal  lecture, 
references  to  authorities  being  given  previous  to  each  meet- 
ing, as  the  following  examples  will  show  :  — 

Standards  of  Value,  see  Jevons,  "  Money  and  the  Mechanism  of 
Exchange,"  chaps,  iii,  xxv ;  S.  Dana  Horton,  "  Gold  and  Silver," 
chap,  iv,  p.  36;  F.  A.  Walker,  "Political  Economy,"  pp.  363-368, 
"  Money,  Trade,  and  Industry,"  pp.  56-77 ;  Wolowski,  "  L'Or  et 
1'Argent,"  pp.  7,  22,  207;  Mill,  "Principles  of  Political  Economy," 
book  iii,  chap,  xv ;  Walras,  "  Journal  des  Economistes,"  October, 
1882,  pp.  5-13. 

The  third  hour  of  the  week  (and  also  the  mid-year  ex- 
amination) can  be  omitted  by  men  who  promise  to  prepare 
one  considerable  thesis  (due  in  April)  on  a  subject  connected 
with  some  practical  question  of  the  day  which  has  not  been 
discussed  in  the  class-room.  Examples  of  such  subjects  are  : 
the  warehousing  system  ;  a  commercial  treaty  with  Mexico  ; 
the  public  land  system  ;  the  remedy  for  our  surplus  of  reve- 
nue ;  municipal  taxation ;  characteristics  of  socialism  in  the 
United  States  ;  co-operation  in  the  United  States  (productive 
and  distributive  co-operation,  industrial  partnerships,  and  co- 
operative banks)  ;  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  small 
holdings. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY  4  (Economic  History  of  Europe  and 
America  since  the  Seven  Years'  War,  three  hours  a  week, 
Professor  DUNBAR)  serves  to  connect  Political  Economy  with 


AT  HARVARD   UNIVERSITY.  189 

History.  It  requires  no  previous  study  of  Political  Economy, 
although  some  historical  knowledge  of  the  period  is  presup- 
posed. Among  the  more  prominent  subjects  taken  up  are  : 
the  rise  of  the  modern  manufacturing  system,  more  particu- 
larly in  cottons,  woolens,  iron ;  the  steam  engine  ;  the  eco- 
nomic effects  of  American  Independence  and  of  the  French 
Revolution ;  the  factory  system ;  the  migration  of  labor ; 
improved  transportation  by  railroads  and  steamships ;  the 
application  of  liberal  ideas  to  international  trade ;  the  new 
gold  of  California  and  Australia ;  the  economic  effects  of  the 
Civil  "War  in  the  United  States  ;  American  grain  in  Europe  ; 
the  Suez  Canal ;  the  crisis  of  1873,  and  commercial  crises  in 
general ;  the  development  of  banking ;  and  the  resumption 
of  specie  payments  in  the  United  States. 

The  course  is  chiefly  narrative,  and  is  carried  on  by  lec- 
tures, supplemented  by  references  for  collateral  reading.  A 
printed  list  of  topics  is  distributed  to  the  students,  containing 
a  .summary  of  the  lectures  and  references  to  books  reserved 
in  the  Library.  An  extract  from  this  list  will  most  clearly 
indicate  its  character  and  purpose.  It  gives  the  topics  and 
references  for  the  first  lecture  on  the  new  gold  supply  :  — 

LECTURE  XL VII.  —  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California : 
"Robinson's  California"  (see  Larkin's  and  Mason's  Reports,  pp. 
17,  33);  also  Exec.  Doc.  of  U.  S.,  1848,  i,  1.  — The  discovery  in  Aus- 
tralia :  Westgarth,  "  Colony  of  Victoria,"  122, 315.  —  Establishment 
of  miners'  customs  :  Wood,  "  Sixteen  Months  in  the  Gold  Diggings," 
125  ;  Lalor's  "  Cyclopaedia,"  ii,  851.  —  Increased  supply  of  precious 
metals  in  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  small  in  proportion 
to  that  in  nineteenth  century  :  Soetbeer,  "  Edelmetall-Production  " 
(in  Petermann's  "  Mittheilungen  "),  Plate  3  ;  "  Walker  on  Money," 
Part  I,  chaps,  vii,  viii.  —  The  discoveries  of  1848  and  1851  needed  to 
give  effect  to  influences  already  stimulating  trade  and  commerce. 

Similar  topics  and  references  are  given  for  each  of  the 
eighty  or  ninety  lectures. 


190     COURSES    OF   STUDY   IN   POLITICAL   ECONOMY 

In  POLITICAL  ECONOMY  5  (Economic  Effects  of  Laud  Ten- 
ures in  England,  Ireland,  France,  and  Germany — Lectures 
and  Theses,  one  hour  a  week,  counting  as  a  half -course, 
Assistant-Professor  LAUGHLIN)  a  branch  of  the  science  that, 
has  been  but  slightly  considered  in  Course  1  is  taken  up, 
and,  as  in  the  other  practical  courses,  an  attempt  is  made  to 
apply  principles  to  facts.  The  following  extract  from  the 
official  pamphlet,  describing  the  courses  of  study  in  Political 
Economy,  will  indicate  the  ground  covered  :  — 

"  This  course  covers  the  questions  now  of  political  importance  in 
England,  Ireland,  France,  and  Germany  in  their  economic  aspects, 
and  embraces  the  following  subjects  :  —  In  England  :  the  land  laws ; 
relative  position  of  landlord,  tenant,  and  laborer  in  the  last  one 
hundred  years ;  tenant-right ;  leases ;  prices  and  importation  of 
grain ;  repeal  of  the  corn-laws ;  American  competition ;  peasant 
proprietorship.  In  Ireland :  the  ancient  tribal  customs ;  English 
conquests  ;  relations  of  landlord  and  tenant ;  security  of  tenure ; 
Ulster  tenant-right ;  absenteeism  ;  parliamentary  legislation  ;  acts 
of  1869,  1870,  1881,  1882 ;  population  ;  prices  of  food  and  labor. 
In  France  :  feudal  burdens  on  land ;  relation  of  classes,  and  con- 
dition of  peasantry  and  agriculture  before  the  Revolution ;  small 
holdings  and  the  law  of  equal  division  ;  present  condition  of  peas- 
antry and  agriculture ;  growth  of  population  ;  statistics  of  produc- 
tion, wages,  prices  ;  peasant  proprietorship.  In  Germany  :  reforms 
of  Stern  and  Hardenberg ;  condition  of  agriculture ;  peasant  pro- 
prietors ;  statistics  of  wages  and  prices." 

A  subject  taken  up  (for  example,  English  land  tenures)  is 
divided  into  topics,  some  of  which  are  treated  by  the  instruc- 
tor by  means  of  lectures,  others  are  assigned  to  the  indi- 
vidual members  of  the  class,  who  are  expected  to  present  the 
results  of  their  study  in  writing.  These  short  theses  are 
criticised  and  discussed  by  the  instructor  and  the  class, 
authorities  that  have  been  overlooked  are  pointed  out,  and 
suggestions  are  made  as  to  the  way  in  which  the  question 
can  be  better  handled.  Perhaps  five  or  six  of  these  papers 


AT   HARVARD  UNIVERSITY.  191 

are  required  from  each  student  during  the  year,  the  intention 
being  that  at  least  one  shall  be  handed  in  each  week.  As 
the  natural  tendency  of  such  work  is  to  "  compile,"  much 
more  consideration  is  given  to  the  quality  than  to  the  quan- 
tity of  the  thesis. 

In  POLITICAL  ECONOMY  6  (History  of  Tariff  Legislation  in 
the  United  States,  one  hour  a  week,  counting  as  a  half- 
course,  Dr.  TAUSSIG)  the  history  of  tariff  legislation  from 
1789  to  the  present  day  is  studied.  The  method  of  instruc- 
tion is  by  lectures  and  collateral  reading,  specific  references 
being  given  beforehand  on  the  subjects  to  be  taken  up ;  for 
example,  the  references  on  the  tariff  act  of  1789  are  as  fol- 
lows:  Hamilton's  "Life  of  Hamilton,"  iv,  2-7;  Adams, 
'•  Taxation  in  United  States,"  1-30,  especially  27-30  ;  Sum- 
uer,  "  History  of  Protection,"  21-25  ;  Young's  "  Report  on 
Tariff  Legislation,"  pp.  iv-xvi.  Similar  references  are 
given  when  the  economic  effects  of  the  tariff,  more  particu- 
larly in  recent  years,  are  discussed.  The  class-room  work  is 
based  on  the  assumption  that  the  passages  referred  to  have 
been  read  by  the  students,  and,  though  mainly  carried  on  by 
lectures,  includes  questioning  and  discussion  on  the  refer- 
ences. The  economic  principles  bearing  on  tariff  legislation 
are  taken  up  in  connection  with  the  more  important  public 
utterances  on  the  subject,  such  as  Hamilton's  "  Report  on 
Manufactures,"  Gallatin's  "  Memorial  of  1832,"  Walker's 
"  Treasury  Repoi't  of  1845,"  and  the  speeches  of  Webster, 
Clay,  and  others.  These  are  read  by  the  students,  and  dis- 
cussed in  the  class  ;  and  at  the  same  time  with  them  are 
considered  the  views  of  writers  on  the  theory  of  economic 
science.  In  the  course  of  the  year  the  various  arguments 
pro  and  con  in  the  protection  controversy  are,  in  one  snape 
or  another,  encountered  and  discussed.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  year  lectures  are  given  on  the  tariff  history  of  Eng- 
hind,  France,  and  Germany. 


192      COURSE   OF   STUDY   IN   POLITICAL   ECONOMY. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY  7  (Comparison  of  the  Financial  Sys- 
tems of  France,  England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States, 
one  hour  a  week,  counting  as  a  half -course,  Professor  DUN- 
BAR)  deals  with  the  principles  of  finance,  and  with  the 
financial  systems  of  the  more  important  civilized  countries. 
The  budgets  of  France,  Germany,  and  England  are  exam- 
ined and  compared,  the  financial  methods  of  the  United 
States  are  noted,  and  the  principles  of  finance  and  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  different  taxes  are  dis- 
cussed. The  instruction  is  mainly  by  lectures.  The  course 
is  not  given  in  the  present  year  (1884-85),  and  may  be 
omitted  in  future  years,  though  it  will  be  retained  on  the 
elective  list. 

In  POLITICAL  ECONOMY  8  (History  of  Financial  Legislation 
in  the  United  States,  one  hour  a  week,  counting  as  a  half- 
course,  Professor  DDNBAK)  the  funding  of  the  Revolutionary 
debt,  the  establishment  and  working  of  the  first  Bank  of  the 
United  States,  the  financial  policy  of  Hamilton  and  Gallatin, 
the  effect  of  the  War  of  1812  on  the  finances  and  the  cur- 
rency, the  establishment  of  the  second  Bank  of  the  United 
States,  the  fall  of  the  bank  in  Jackson's  time,  and  the  years 
1836-40,  the  independent  treasury,  the  State  banking  sys- 
tem, the  growth  of  the  public  debt  during  the  Civil  War,  and 
its  reduction  and  conversion  since,  the  establishment  and 
working  of  the  National  Bank  system,  —  are  the  topics  succes- 
sively considered.  The  method  of  instruction  is  by  lectures 
and  by  reference  to  the  public  documents  and  other  writings 
bearing  on  the  subject.  It  is  advised  by  the  instructors  that 
Courses  6  and  8  in  Political  Economy  be  taken  together  ;  and 
this  advice  has  been  followed,  most  students  who  take  one 
of  these  courses  being  also  members  of  the  other. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY. 


BY  PROFESSOR  J.  R.  SEELEY. 


I  MUST  ask  yon  to  be  content  with  a  few  large  affirma- 
tions, which  may  be  sufficient  to  provoke  discussion,  but 
which,  in  the  paper  itself,  can  be  but  very  inadequately  sup- 
ported. Perhaps  you  will  agree  with  me  that  history,  as  an 
educational  subject,  is  not  jet  past  the  stage  at  which  large 
affirmations  are  necessary,  that  conscientious  and  exact 
research  ought  to  prevail  in  history,  as  in  other  serious  de- 
partments of  study,  that  we  can  no  longer  be  content  with  the 
showy,  semi-fictitious  narratives  that  satisfied  a  former  gen- 
eration, is  a  proposition  upon  which  a  great  reform  in  the 
teaching  of  history  has  been  based.  We  all  know  what  has 
been  done  in  this  direction  among  ourselves  ;  in  Germany  the 
reform  was  made  long  ago ;  in  Paris  it  has,  in  recent  years, 
proceeded  rapidly,  thanks  to  the  exertions  of  the  Minister 
Duruy  and  such  professors  as  Monod,  Sorel,  and  Lavisse.  On 
the  principle  itself  I  shall  have  nothing  to  say,  because  I  do 
not  suppose  that  among  serious  men  there  is  any  difference  of 
opinion  about  it.  If  we  set  out  in  pursuit  of  truth,  evidently 
we  cannot  be  content  with  anything  short  of  truth  ;  and  we 
all  of  us  by  this  time  have  enough  familiarity  with  the  rigor 
of  scientific  methods  to  be  convinced  that  the  discovery  of 
truth  is  no  child's  play,  no  mere  amusement.  But,  though 
the  principle  seems  indisputable,  I  find  that  the  application 
of  it  in  education  arouses  much  opposition,  more  opposition 


194  THE   TEACHING   OF   HISTORY. 

than  I  for  a  long  time  understood.  I.t  is  allowed  that  such 
vigor  of  research  is  indispensable  in  the  best  kind  of  historical 
study,  that  those  who  intend  to  devote  their  lives  to  history 
should  study  it  in  this  spirit.  But  the  principle  is  of  wider 
application.  It  alfects  also  the  historical  studies  of  those 
who  give  less  exclusive  attention  to  history  ;  in  short,  of  the 
mass  of  students  ;  and,  further  still,  it  affects  popular  views 
of  history  and  our  notions  of  the  manner  in  which  history 
should  be  written.  These  more  indirect  results  of  tiie  prin- 
ciple of  thoroughness  arouse,  I  find,  much  opposition,  and, 
when  such  opposition  seems  likely  to  be  vain,  a  very  sincere 
feeling  of  dismay.  For  this  principle  makes  havoc  of  more 
cherished  opinions  than  we  might  at  first  have  expected,  and, 
as  it  proceeds,  seems  to  take  all  the  poetry  and  all  the  charm 
out  of  history  in  such  a  way  that  we  find  ourselves  at  last  asking 
for  what  purpose  history  so  studied  can  serve.  The  admiration 
of  great  men,  the  elevating  contemplation  of  noble  examples, 
is  the  reward  most  of  us  expect  to  receive  for  the  trouble  we 
bestow  upon  history  ;  but  the  principle  of  thoroughness  soon 
sets  us  doubting  whether  any  great  men  will  come  safe  out 
of  the  critical  crucible  ;  whether  the  historical  record  is  com- 
plete enough  to  have  preserved  any  trustworthy  memory  of 
great  men  ;  nay,  whether  public  affairs  are  not  for  the  most 
part  under  the  empire  of  routine,  and  seldom  much  affected 
by  the  especial  qualities  of  an  individual.  Scepticism  invades 
this  department  of  knowledge  too,  and  we  begin  after  a  time 
to  perceive  that  another  class  of  opinions,  viz.,  our  opinions 
on  politics,  were  far  more  involved  than  we  at  first  imagined 
with  those  opinions  on  historical  events  and  historical  char- 
acters about  the  soundness  of  which  we  have  begun  to  feel 
a  misgiving.  Hitherto,  those  who  have  sought  to  elevate 
the  minds  of  students  and  give  them  a  noble  enthusiasm  by 
means  of  books,  have  looked  mainly  to  historical  books.  It 


THE  TEACHING   OF   HISTORY.  195 

is  a  result  of  the  reform  in  historical  method,  which  has  made 
it  so  much  more  rigorous,  that  historical  books  henceforth 
will  be  less  available  for  this  purpose.  But,  if  so,  it  will 
begin  to  be  asked  what  is  the  use  of  them  to  the  majority  of 
students.  I  do  not  myself  think  that  such  extreme  scepti- 
cism with  respect  to  history,  as  that  which  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  professes,  is  likely  to  prevail.  I  am  not  afraid  but 
that  history  will  continue  to  be  thought  important,  and  I  be- 
lieve that  in  the  form  of  serious  research  it  will  flourish  more 
and  more  for  a  long  time  to  come.  But  in  this  form  will  it 
not  be  a  study  only  adapted  for  the  few?  Ought  we  not, 
therefore,  to  lay  it  down  as  a  fundamental  rule  of  the  teach- 
ing of  history  that  the  subject  is  to  be  struck  off  the  general 
educational  list  of  subjects  ? 

I  have  remarked  with  anxiety  of  late  years  that  some 
distinguished  teachers  appear  inclined  to  hold  this  opinion. 
History  was  the  favorite  subject  of  Arnold  and  Temple,  but 
some  at  least  of  those  who  now  hold  the  same  sort  of  dis- 
tinguished position  in  the  educational  world,  profess  that 
they  do  not  know  how  to  teach  history,  and  that  there  is  no 
subject  which  baffles  them  so  much.  The  solution  of  this 
difficulty  I  seem  to  myself  to  see  very  distinctly,  and,  if  I 
seem  to  any  to  state  it  here  indistincthr,  I  must  ask  them  to 
impute  it  to  the  hurry  in  which  I  write,  and  at  the  same  time 
refer  them  to  several  essays  printed  at  different  times  in 
u  Macmillan's  Magazine,"  in  which  I  have  stated  it  more 
fully. 

That  historical  investigations  ought  to  be  thorough  is  of 
course  true,  but  by  itself  the  proposition  can  hardly  be  called 
a  truth  ;  it  is  at  best  a  half-truth.  If  we  borrow  from  science 
its  rigorous  method,  let  us  borrow  at  the  same  time  what 
science  has  else  to  offer.  History  which  is  scientific  in  its 
exactness,  but  in  nothing  else,  is  a  middle  thing  between 


196  THE   TEACHING  OF   HISTORY. 

science  and  literature,  and  will  attain  the  ends  of  neither ;  it 
will  be  only  dull  literature  and  abortive  science. 

Science,  when  it  has  with  such  exemplary  care  collected 
and  verified  its  facts,  proceeds  to  generalize  upon  them,  and 
thus  to  establish  principles.  It  is  only  for  the  sake  of  such 
principles  that  science  considers  facts  worthy  of  collection 
and  exact  verification.  But  history,  when  it  has  made  its 
investigations,  contents  itself  with  arranging  and  recording 
the  results  in  stately  narrative  composed  with  literary  art. 
The  historian  usually  asserts  that  the  results  thus  recorded 
are  of  great  value ;  he  seems  to  assume  that  general  princi- 
ples might  be  deduced  from  them,  but  he  professes  at  the 
same  time  that  his  business  is  only  with  the  facts,  and  that 
his  work  is  done  when  a  narrative  has  been  composed  exactly 
true,  and  at  the  same  time  well  written.  The  reform  of  which 
I  have  spoken  has  scarcely  touched  this  curious  division  of 
labor.  It  leaves  the  historian  in  the  condition  of  a  mere 
investigator  and  narrator  of  facts,  asserting  only  that  of 
these  two  functions  the  former  is  far  more  important  and 
more  difficult  than  the  latter. 

To  whom,  then,  does  it  fall  to  deduce  conclusions  from  the 
materials  furnished  by  the  historian?  To  a  wholly  different 
class  of  persons,  who  at  present  have  scarcely  a  name  or 
recognized  position  among  us,  —  those  philosophers  who  are 
attempting  to  build  up  a  system  of  sociology.  But  their 
speculations,  being  kept  wholly  separate  from  history,  do 
not  enter  into  the  teaching  of  history.  In  education,  there- 
fore, this  subject  is  left  as  a  mass  of  building  materials,  out 
of  which  no  edifice  is  ever  constructed.  So  long  as  the  mere 
literary  view  of  the  subject  prevailed,  this  did  not  seem 
absurd  ;  political  truth  was  supposed  to  have  been  discovered 
independently  by  some  &  priori  method,  and  historical  exam- 
ples were  adduced  chiefly  by  way  of  illustration  ;  but  the  ab- 


THE  TEACHING   OF   HISTORY.  197 

surdity  springs  to  light  as  soon  as  history  begins  to  be  classed 
under  science  rather  than  under  literature,  so  soon  as  politi- 
cal truth  is  understood  to  be  discovered  through  history,  and 
not  merely  to  be  illustrated  by  it. 

I  should  like  to  argue  at  length  that  it  is  in  itself  an 
unsound  method  to  assign  the  investigation  of  facts  to  one 
set  of  workers,  and  the  reasoning  upon  the  facts  so  discov- 
ered to  another  class.  I  should  like  to  show  that  if  the 
historian  is  not  himself  a  sociologist,  he  will  not  know  what 
facts  are  worth  investigating,  and  still  less  in  what  degree 
facts  are  worth  investigating.  I  should  like  to  call  attention 
to  the  vast  waste  of  labor  on  the  one  side,  and  the  vast  defi- 
cienc}'  of  labor  on  the  other  side,  which  actuall}*  arise  from 
the  fact  that  historians  under  the  present  system  are  scarcely 
sociologists,  and  therefore  do  not  altogether  know  for  what 
purpose  they  investigate.  But  I  must  be  content  to  point 
out  the  bad  effects  which  the  system  has  in  education. 

Under  this  system  facts  are  grouped,  not  according  to 
resemblance  in  kind,  but  simply  in  a  chronological  series. 
What  may  be  called  a  biography  of  some  famous  state  is 
written.  Such  a  state  biography  may  be  made  very  impres- 
sive by  a  writer  of  imagination,  especially  if  he  does  not 
hamper  himself  with  too  minute  research.  But  what  can  the 
student  do  with  it?  He  can  scarcely  treat  it  as  a  poem,  and 
learn  it  by  heart.  Under  the  reformed  system  he  analyzes 
it,  criticises  it,  traces  it  back  to  its  source  ;  a  process  under 
which  most  of  its  poetical  impressiveness  is  likely  to  disap- 
pear. In  return,  he  gets  exact  knowledge  of  important 
occurrences,  but  he  does  not  get  this  in  the  form  in  which  he 
can  use  it  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  general  conclu- 
sions, for  the  facts  of  which  he  thus  gets  exact  knowledge 
are  heterogeneous.  They  do  not  belong  together  by  their 
nature,  but  only  happen  to  be  connected  chronologically. 


198  THE   TEACHING   OF   HISTORY. 

A  single  example  will  put  before  you  the  very  obvious,  yet, 
as  I  think,  all-important  fact  to  which  I  draw  your  attention. 
Let  us  think  of  the  agrarian  legislation  of  Tiberius  Gracchus, 
which  occupies  the  first  striking  chapter  in  the  history  of  the 
fall  of  Rome.  What  subject  can  be  more  instructive  to  a 
student,  both  from  its  own  importance  and  from  the  admira- 
ble manner  in  which  it  has  been  treated  by  modern  scholar- 
ship? True,  but  educationally  it  is  out  of  its  place  when  it 
comes  before  the  student  as  a  mere  occurrence  of  the  second 
century  before  Christ.  For  thus  presented  it  stands  among 
facts  with  which  it  has  no  resemblance,  and  which  throw  no 
light  upon  it,  —  military  facts  concerning  the  conquest  of 
Carthage,  Spain,  and  Greece  by  the  Romans,  facts  of  culture 
history  concerning  the  influence  of  Greek  literature  and  Greek 
philosophy  upon  the  conquerors  of  Greece.  To  study  it  prop- 
erly, we  must  take  it  out  of  its  chronological  connection  and 
put  it  among  facts  of  its  own  kind.  It  is  a  land  question  ; 
it  has  nothing  to  do  with  war  or  with  literature.  It  must  be 
studied  first  in  connection  with  the  land  system  of  Rome  in 
earlier  and  later  times ;  secondly,  by  comparison  with  the 
land  systems  and  land  revolutions  of  other  states,  both 
ancient  and  modern. 

In  short,  science  brings  together  phenomena  of  the  same 
kind,  but  history  brings  together  phenomena  of  different 
kinds,  which  have  chanced  to  appear  at  the  same  time.  "We 
have  given  to  history  the  conscientiousness  of  science,  but 
we  have  not  yet  given  it  the  arrangement  of  science.  We 
still  arrange  historic  phenomena  under  periods,  centuries, 
reigns,  dynasties,  but  what  is  wanted  is  a  real  rather  than  a 
temporal  classification.  The  phenomena  should  be  classed 
under  such  headings  as  Constitutional,  International,  Eco- 
nomical, Industrial,  etc.  Nor  should  each  state  be  studied 
by  itself,  but  all  states  together,  the  comparative  method 


THE   TEACHING    OF   HISTORY.  199 

being  constantly  employed,  and  much  attention  being  given 
to  the  classification  of  states. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  principle  would  be  almost  revolu- 
tionary, if  it  were  at  once  and  without  reserve  applied  to  the 
teaching  of  history.  I  am  sensible  that  it  needs  to  be  ex- 
plained at  great  length,  and  I  am  quite  aware  how  many 
objections  might  be  urged  against  it.  But  I  have  not  time 
either  for  fuller  exposition  or  for  dealing  with  objections, 
and  therefore  in  the  remainder  of  this  paper  I  shall  deal 
with  an  intermediate  system  which  might,  without  too  great 
difficulty,  be  adopted  at  once. 

The  essential  point  is  this,  that  we  should  recognize  that 
to  study  history  is  to  study  not  merely  a  narrative,  but  at  the 
same  time  certain  theoretical  subjects.  Thus,  industrial  facts 
cannot  be  understood  without  political  economy,  nor  military 
facts  without  military  science,  nor  legal  facts  without  legal 
science,  nor  constitutional  and  legislative  developments  with- 
out political  science.  I  have  gone  further,  and  laid  it  down 
that  these  theoretical  subjects  are  the  real  object  for  which 
historical  facts  are  collected  and  authenticated.  But  for  the 
present  it  is  enough  that  they  should  be  recognized  as  insep- 
arably connected  with  historical  study.  It  has  always  been 
tacitly  assumed  that  the  historian  is  also  an  economist,  an 
authority  on  constitutional  law,  on  legislation,  on  finance, 
on  strategy .  Let  us,  then,  go  a  single  step  further,  and 
recognize  that,  as  the  historian  is  all  this,  the  student  of  his- 
tory must  prepare  himself  to  be  all  this  —  in  other  words, 
must  master  all  these  subjects.  These  are  the  great  subjects 
of  public  life ;  these  are  the  studies  which  make  the  citizen 
and  train  the  statesman.  All  the  poetic  charm  which  history 
is  losing  would  be  amply  compensated  if  it  should  acquire  in 
exchange  the  practical  interest  that  is  associated  with  these 
studies. 


200  THE   TEACHING   OF   HISTORY. 

First,  then,  let  the  most  important  of  these  subjects  be 
taught  theoretically  along  with  history,  and  for  the  benefit  of 
historical  students.  Some  of  them,  of  course,  are  much  more 
important  than  others.  I  place  in  the  foreground  what  we 
may  call  political  philosophy  (Allgemeine  Staatslehre) .  After 
this  may  come  that  comparative  study  of  legal  institutions 
of  which  we  have  such  excellent  specimens  in  the  works  of 
Sir  H.  Maine.  Next  will  come  political  economy,  which  in 
the  hands  of  an  able  teacher  will  probably  assume  a  some- 
what new  shape  when  it  is  treated  from  the  historical  point 
of  view.  International  law  should  be  added,  in  order  to 
accustom  the  student  to  contemplate  the  mutual  relations  of 
states. 

It  may  be  said  that  enough  would  be  done  if  the  teacher 
or  lecturer,  in  treating  a  historical  period,  entered  fully  into 
the  economical,  or  juridical,  or  political  principles  suggested 
by  the  narrative.  This  is  precisely  what  I  wish  to  deny.  It 
seems  to  me  that  in  history,  as  hitherto  written  and  taught, 
a  quantity  of  theory  has  been,  as  it  were,  held  in  solution  ; 
I  wish  to  see  it  precipitated.  Whereas  the  investigation  of 
historical  facts  has  latch'  been  made  honest  and  careful,  the 
reasoning  about  historical  facts  is  still,  it  seems  to  me,  oracu- 
lar and  unsatisfactory ;  I  wish  to  make  this,  too,  honest, 
methodical,  explicit.  For  this  end  it  seems  to  me  necessary 
that  what  really  is  theory  should  be  called  theory  and  studied 
as  such. 

If  it  be  asked  by  what  practical  measures  such  a  change 
could  be  introduced  ;  if  it  be  urged,  for  instance,  by  a  school- 
master, that  there  is  no  room  in  the  school-day  for  lessons 
on  three  or  four  new  subjects,  and  that  masters  to  teach 
them  are  not  to  be  found  in  sufficient  number,  I  should 
reply,  that  I  have  been  discussing  the  teaching  of  history  in 
general,  not  the  teaching  of  history  in  schools.  What  I  my- 


THE   TEACHING   OF   HISTORY.  201 

self  know  practically  is  the  teaching  of  history  in  universi- 
ties, and  I  suppose  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  principle 
that  reforms  in  education  must  begin  at  the  university.  The 
school  is  fettered  to  the  university,  since  to  the  university 
the  boys  go,  and  from  the  university  the  masters  come. 
Now,  in  the  universities  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  arrange 
the  teaching  of  histoiy  on  this  principle.  Since  in  a  univer- 
sity the  theoretical  subjects  I  have  mentioned  are  already 
taught,  all  that  is  required  is  to  bring  them  into  more  direct, 
more  formal  connection  with  history,  and  to  abolish  that 
vicious  division  of  labor  under  which  the  historian  imagines 
that  he  has  nothing  to  do  with  sociolog}',  and  the  sociologist 
that  he  can  dispense  with  history. 

When  this  has  once  been  done,  each  university  will  create 
a  school  of  historians  who  will  be  as  strong  on  the  theoretical 
side  as  on  the  side  of.  mere  research.  The}"  will  be  sociolo- 
gists, economists,  jurists,  as  well  as  chroniclers  and  antiqua- 
rians, and,  as  at  both  our  universities  the  historical  school  is 
already  large,  a  good  many  of  such  historians  will  be  formed. 
These  will  carry  the  method  from  the  universities  to  the 
schools.  They  will  be  the  masters  of  the  future  historical 
classes  at  Harrow  and  Rugby.  From  them  will  proceed  the 
text-books  which  will,  as  it  were,  fix  the  method  and  bring  it 
within  the  reach  of  less  able  teachers.  They,  too,  will  decide 
whether  history  taught  in  this  way  is  to  be  considered  as  an 
advanced  subject,  fit  only  for  the  highest  classes  in  schools, 
or  whether  it  may  be  possible  to  introduce  even  younger  boys 
to  it. 

Lastly,  they  will  help  to  clear  up  the  confusion  as  to  the 
nature  and  objects  of  history  which  now  exists  in  the  public 
mind.  They  will  separate  it  from  biography  and  from  mere 
i-urious  information  about  past  times.  They  will  separate  it 
from  romance,  and  they  will  explain  in  what  sense  and  in 


202  THE  TEACHING  OF   HISTORY. 

what  degree  it  may  properly  be  made  interesting,  and  in 
what  sense  also  it  cannot  be  interesting  without  ceasing  to 
be  true.  They  will  assert  the  seriousness  of  history,  and 
make  it  the  lesson-book  of  politics ;  no  longer  a  record 
which  partisans  may  garble  at  their  pleasure,  but  a  record 
of  truth,  not  to  be  altered  and  not  to  be  evaded,  written  to 
correct  our  prejudices  and  rebuke  our  party  rancor.  —  Lon- 
don Journal  of  Education. 


ON  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  HISTORY. 


BY  PROFESSOR  C.  K.  ADAMS,  MICHIGAN  UNIVERSITY. 


teaching  of  history,  in  common  with  instruction  in 
-L  all  other  systems  of  organized  knowledge,  should  be 
carried  on  with  three  more  or  less  distinct  objects  in  view : 
the  nature  of  the  facts  involved,  the  relations  of  those  facts, 
and  the  proper  methods  of  investigation.  Though  it  is  not 
possible  in  practice  to  separate  these  three  objects  completely 
one  from  another,  }-et  each  should  receive  its  due  proportion 
of  attention,  and  should  receive  that  attention  in  its  appro- 
priate place.  First  of  all,  therefore,  the  teacher  of  history 
is  called  upon  to  decide  which  of  these  three  objects  he  ought 
with  any  given  class  to  keep  most  prominently  in  view.  The 
answer  of  this  question  involves  nothing  less  than  a  deter- 
mination of  the  proper  succession  of  historical  studies. 

This  order  of  succession  would  seem  to  be  fixed  by  nature. 
It  is  certain  that  we  must  know  something  of  the  existence, 
if  not,  indeed,  of  the  nature,  of  any  given  order  of  events 
before  we  can  apprehend  very  clearly  the  relations  of  those 
events  to  one  another.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the  begin- 
ning of  all  organized  knowledge  is  the  acquisition  of  a  certain 
number  of  facts  and  truths.  These  facts,  moreover,  must 
not  be  limited  in  range  to  a  single  portion  of  the  subject  we 
are  to  study.  They  must  be  comprehensive  in  their  scope. 
We  must  know  something  of  the  heavens  as  a  whole  before 
we  can  well  understand  the  double  stars  or  even  the  moon. 
We  cannot  appreciate  the  significance  of  a  missing  link  until 
we  have  learned  something  of  the  chain  of  which  that  link  is 


204  ON    METHODS    OF 

supposed  to  form  a  part.  We  shall  be  unable  to  explain  the 
jubilant  prosperity  of  a  great  and  growing  city  unless  we 
have  acquired  considerable  knowledge  of  the  region  of  which 
that  city  is  the  political  and  commercial  centre.  Thus  we  see 
that  there  is  a  certain  necessary  order  of  succession,  an  order 
which  seems  to  be  founded  in  the  law,  so  well  formulated  by 
Herbert  Spencer,  "there  can  be  no  correct  idea  of  a  part 
without  a  correct  idea  of  the  correlative  whole." 

It  is  of  course  true  that  we  learn  something  of  individual 
facts  before  we  can  advance  to  a  comprehension  of  a  series. 
In  a  certain  sense,  therefore,  we  must  proceed  from  the  indi- 
vidual to  the  general.  But  it  is  also  true  that  before  our 
knowledge  of  the  individual  can  be  complete,  we  must  have 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  the  series  of  which  the  individ- 
ual forms  a  part.  The  proper  order  of  study,  therefore, 
would  seem  to  be  definitely  fixed  at  our  hand.  We  should 
begin  with  such  individual  facts  as  form  the  strategic  points 
of  historical  progress,  and  should  dwell  upon  them  only  so 
far  as  to  fix  their  general  character  and  importance  in  the 
attention  of  the  pupil.  We  should  then  proceed  to  a  study 
of  the  relations  of  those  facts  in  the  development  of  society. 
This  done,  we  are  ready  to  advance  to  the  third  stage  of 
our  study,  —  a  more  careful  investigation  of  the  individual 
elements  of  social  and  political  life,  with  a  view  to  revealing 
the  sources  of  their  influence  and  power. 

Having  determined  so  much  in  regard  to  the  proper  order 
of  studies,  we  are  ready  to  address  ourselves  to  the  question 
of  methods.  But  at  the  very  outset  we  are  confronted  with 
a  somewhat  formidable  difficulty.  In  the  present  condition 
of  schools  in  the  United  States,  there  is  actually,  and  per- 
haps necessarily,  a  broad  distinction  between  what  is  desir- 
able and  what  is  practicable.  It  is  probably  not  too  much 
to  say  that  the  introduction  of  methods  of  ideal  excellence 


TEACHING   HISTOBY.  205 

in  the  teaching  of  history  would  involve  a  revolution  in  our 
schools  which  the  public  at  present  is  scarcely  ready  even  to 
consider.  But  however  much  we  may  be  obliged  to  fall  short 
of  what  we  could  desire,  we  shall  always  find  it  profitable  to 
keep  our  eyes  fixed  upon  the  highest  ideals.  First  of  all, 
then,  let  us  provide  a  standard  of  measurement  by  inquiring 
what  is  desirable. 

In  a  school  where  all  branches  of  instruction  are  properly 
distributed  and  organized,  the  pupil  may  profitably  receive 
his  first  lessons  in  history  when  he  is  nine  or  ten  years  of 
age.  But  a  careful  distinction  must  be  made  between  re- 
ceiving the  first  instruction  in  history  and  beginning  the 
study  of  it.  At  this  age  the  pupil  acquires  information,  not 
through  his  own  unaided  effort,  but  almost  exclusively  through 
the  effort  of  the  teacher.  A  mother  has  no  difficulty  in  teach- 
ing her  child  the  story  of  Joseph  or  Samuel,  and  a  teacher 
properly  qualified  for  his  vocation  ought  to  have  no  more 
difficulty  in  teaching  the  story  of  Pyrrhus  or  Martin  Luther. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  only  two  requisites  of 
success.  The  teacher  must  know  the  story,  and  he  must 
understand  the  art  of  telling  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  an 
impression  by  it.  That  such  methods,  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, are  entirety  practicable  has  been  clearly  demon- 
strated in  the  German  gymnasia.  In  these  schools,  where 
history  has  been  taught  with  greater  success  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  world,  a  teacher  who  has  been  especially  trained 
for  his  work  takes  the  lowest  grade  of  pupils  over  the  whole 
range  of  general  history  in  this  way.  The  course  is  almost 
exclusively  biographical.  Indeed,  it  is  little  more  than  a 
succession  of  stories  told  with  the  especial  aim  of  making  a 
deep  impression  upon  the  mind  of  the  child  concerning  some 
of  the  most  important  of  the  great  characters  of  history. 
Such  a  course,  continuing  for  two  years  at  the  rate  of  two 


206  ON  METHODS   OF 

lessons  a  week,  will  bo  found  to  have  given  the  pupil  consid- 
erable knowledge  of  a  vast  number  of  valuable  facts.  And, 
best  of  all,  the  method  by  which  this  information  has  been 
acquired,  so  far  from  taxing  the  strength  or  wearying  the 
attention  of  the  scholar,  has  been  to  him  a  positive  source  of 
recreation  and  pleasure. 

At  the  age  of  about  twelve  the  pupil  is  ready  for  a  more 
substantial  diet.  The  teacher  now  takes  him  once  more  over 
the  same  ground,  but  with  a  somewhat  different  object  in 
view.  The  scholar  can  now  put  facts  together,  and  can 
understand  something  of  the  relations  of  cause  and  effect. 
In  the  former  course  he  listened  to  the  story  of  Hannibal : 
now  he  is  ready  for  the  story  of  the  Second  Punic  War.  A 
little  pamphlet,  usually  prepared  by  the  teacher  and  made  up 
almost  exclusively  of  names  and  dates,  is  put  into  the  hand 
of  the  pupil  merely  to  assist  him  in  recalling  what  the  teacher 
has  said.  Here,  as  in  the  former  course,  the  knowledge 
acquired  comes  chiefly  from  the  teacher.  The  system  keeps 
clearly  in  view  the 'fact  that  the  pupil  is  not  yet  ready  for  that 
development  which  results  from  hard  study.  It  never  ceases 
to  remember  that  at  least  three-fourths  of  all  the  time  spent 
by  a  boy  of  twelve  in  trying  to  learn  a  hard  lesson  out  of 
a  book  is  time  thrown  away.  Perhaps  one-fourth  of  the 
time  is  devoted  to  more  or  less  desperate  and  conscientious 
effort ;  but  the  large  remaining  portion  is  dawdled  away  in 
thinking  of  the  last  game  of  ball  and  longing  for  the  next 
game  of  tag.  A  true  system  must  make  a  constant  endeavor 
to  turn  these  demoralizing  moments  to  profitable  account. 
In  this  effort  the  German  system  is  the  most  successful  for 
the  reason  that  instead  of  leaving  the  pupil  to  the  meagre 
resources  of  his  own  thoughts,  it  occupies  his  attention  with 
direct  instruction  in  the  form  of  attractive  and  profitable  nar- 
ration. The  result  is  that,  through  a  judicious  exercise  of  this 


TEACHING   HISTORY.  207 

kind  of  economy,  the  German  pupil  at  the  age  of  fifteen  or 
sixteen  has  been  able  to  complete  two  distinct  surveys  of  uni- 
versal histor}'.  In  the  two  or  three  years  following,  he  is 
able  to  supplement  the  knowledge  already  obtained  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  He  may  be  directed  in  a  careful  study  of 
the  history  of  his  own  county,  an  outline  of  which  he  has 
already  obtained ;  or  may  make  an  elaborate  examination  of 
some  important  period  like  that  of  the  Reformation  or  the 
French  Revolution. 

Such,  stated  in  general  terms,  is  the  preparation  in  history 
which  the  German  student  receives  before  going  to  the  uni- 
versity. It  is  founded  in  a  philosophical  appreciation  of  the 
needs  and  the  capabilities  of  the  pupil,  and  is  undoubtedly 
the  best  that  has  ever  been  devised.  It  is  equally  adapted 
to  the  wants  of  those  two  classes  of  pupils  into  which  every 
secondary  school  is  divided.  It  is  the  best  preparation  for 
those  whose  scholastic  studies  are  to  terminate  with  the  pre- 
paratory school ;  and  the  best  for  those  who  are  to  carry  for- 
ward their  studies  in  a  university  course. 

The  student  who  has  received  this  preparation  goes  to  the 
university  at  about  the  age  of  nineteen.  He  is  now  ready  for 
the  more  careful  and  philosophical  study  of  individual  nations 
and  of  individual  periods.  In  his  future  studies  he  will 
devote  himself  chiefly  to  the  relations  and  significance  of  facts 
rather  than  to  the  mere  existence  of  facts  themselves.  Two 
ways  are  open  to  him  :  he  can  attend  courses  of  lectures, 
and  he  can  become  a  member  of  an  historical  seminary. 
But,  wherever  he  goes,  he  will  usually  find  that  the  object 
is  to  make  a  very  careful  study  of  some  limited  period,  or  of 
some  limited  phase  of  historical  development.  In  the  lec- 
ture-room he  will  find  that  the  work  done  by  the  professor 
has  for  its  highest  object  the  opening  of  avenues  of  research 
and  the  guiding  of  the  student  in  certain  methods  of  thought 


208  ON   METHODS    OF 

and  investigation.  In  the  seminary,  the  student  will  be  di- 
rected here  and  there  by  the  professor,  with  a  view  to  avoid- 
ing gross  errors,  but  the  investigator  will  be  left  to  work  out 
his  results  mainly  in  his  own  way.  Before  he  has  advanced 
very  far  in  carrying  on  his  investigations,  he  will  almost  in- 
evitably arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  historical  seminary 
is  to  the  study  of  history,  what  the  laboratory  is  to  the  study 
of  the  natural  sciences. 

But  as  soon  as  we  attempt  to  compare  this  ideal  with  the 
methods  that  now  generally  prevail  in  the  United  States,  we 
find  more  points  of  difference  than  points  of  similarity.  In 
the  preparatory  schools  of  Germany,  every  teacher  of  history 
is  required  to  have  received  especial  training  by  thorough 
courses  of  historical  study,  such  as  those  given  in  the  gym- 
nasium and  in  the  university.  In  the  best  of  the  preparatory 
schools  in  America,  on  the  other  hand,  history  is  often  taught 
by  persons  that  have  received  no  especial  training  for  the 
work  whatever.  Not  only  have  the  teachers,  as  a  rule,  re- 
ceived inadequate  outfit,  but  they  are  generally  so  burdened 
with  other  work,  and  so  wearied  by  it,  that  they  are  quite 
incapable  of  repairing  any  defects  that  under  more  favorable 
circumstances  might  be  removed.  In  Germany,  moreover, 
history  is  made  a  constituent  part  of  the  regular  intellectual 
nourishment  of  the  pupil  during  the  whole  of  the  time  of  his 
preparatory  work.  In  America,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  gener- 
ally crowded  into  one  or  two  terms,  or,  at  most,  into  a  single 
year.  There  is  a  strong  analogy  between  the  proper  methods 
of  feeding  the  body  and  the  proper  methods  of  feeding  the 
mind.  The  arrangement  of  the  studies  in  many  of  our 
schools  suggests  the  propriety  of  eating  roast  beef  and  plum 
pudding  five  days  in  a  week  for  six  months,  and  then  ab- 
staining from  it  altogether  for  five  or  six  years.  The  effect 
of  such  a  system  upon  the  appetite  and  the  digestion  would 


TEACHING    HISTORY.  209 

doubtless  be  very  much  like  the  effects  of  a,  similar  policy  in 
matters  of  education.  Moreover,  the  teacher  in  America  is 
often  expected  to  teach  not  less  than  twenty-five  or  thirty 
hours  a  week,  while,  of  the  teachers  in  Germany,  scarcely 
more  than  half  of  that  number  is  required.  But,  if  we  de- 
mand twice  as  many  hours  of  the  teacher,  we  strike  the  bal- 
ance by  requiring  only  half  as  man}'  hours  of  the  pupil.  In 
America,  the  number  of  lessons  per  week  for  each  pupil  is 
about  fifteen ;  while  in  Germany  the  number  regularly  re- 
quired is  from  thirty  to  thirty-live.  Thus,  in  the  fashion  of 
Charles  Lamb,  we  preserve  the  equation  by  multiplying  the 
lessons  of  the  teacher  and  dividing  the  lessons  of  the  scholar 
by  two. 

These  comparisons  arc  enough  to  show  that  nothing  less 
than  a  revolution  will  make  our  teaching  of  history  equal  to 
that  which  we  find  in  Germany.  Such  a  revolution  we  ma}- 
not  look  for  at  present.  But  we  can  at  least  inquire  what 
improvements  are  practicable  without  interference  with  the 
general  organization  of  our  schools. 

In  the  first  place,  some  amelioration  is  possible  in  the  use 
of  the  ordinary  text- book.  In  many  schools  the  so-called 
teaching  of  history  is  literally  a  mere  hearing  of  recitations. 
I  have  heard  of  a  person,  by  courtesy  called  a  teacher,  who 
habitually  kept  his  finger  upon  the  line  in  the  text-book  before 
him,  and  limited  his  instruction  to  the  work  of  correcting  the 
trifling  variations  of  the  pupil  from  the  phraseology  of  the 
text.  Here,  the  function  of  the  teacher  was  merely  that  of  a 
watchman  ;  though  this  method  prevailed  in  a  school  that 
called  itself  a  university.  I  have  no  hesitation  in  expressing 
the  opinion  that  the  total  result  of  such  an  exercise  on  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  is  more  injurious  than  beneficial.  The 
mere  memorizing  of  dry  facts  and  assertions  affords  no  intel- 
lectual nourishment,  while  it  is  almost  sure  to  create  a  dis- 


210  ON   METHODS   OF 

taste  for  historical  study,  and,  perhaps,  will  even  alienate 
the  taste  of  the  scholar  forever.  The  first  of  all  endeavors, 
therefore,  should  be  to  put  life  and  action  into  what,  as  it 
stands,  is  a  mere  bundle  of  dry  bones. 

This  can  be  done  in  two  ways.  The  information  of  the 
teacher  may  be  used  to  illustrate  what  is  set  before  the  class 
as  a  lesson.  Questions  hinted  at  in  the  lesson  may  also  be 
assigned  the  class  for  personal  investigation.  The  first 
method  will  always  be  used  to  some  extent  by  every  efficient 
teacher ;  but  it  will  not  ordinarily  be  found  sufficient.  A  far 
more  helpful  reliance  is  the  method  of  personal  research. 
The  nature  of  the  questions  assigned  must,  of  course,  depend 
on  the  intelligence  and  advancement  of  the  class.  But  even 
with  a  class  of  beginners,  more  is  likely  to  be  accomplished 
by  assigning  certain  topics  than  by  assigning  certain  lessons. 
Questions  selected  with  due  reference  to  the  resources  of  the 
school  library  are  likely  to  prove  a  far  more  profitable  means 
of  real  advancement  than  any  slavish  dependence  on  even  the 
best  of  text-books.  The  most  successful  instruction  I  have 
ever  known  in  any  preparatory  school  was  carried  on  without 
any  text-book  whatever. 

But  if  these  methods  are  the  most  efficient  in  the  prepara- 
tory schools,  they  are  even  more  emphatically  to  be  recom- 
mended in  our  colleges  and  universities.  Perhaps  in  neither 
grade  of  instruction  would  it  ordinarily  be  quite  safe  to  aban- 
don the  text-book  altogether.  But  the  text-book  should  be 
looked  upon  as  an  assistance,  rather  than  as  a  means  of  sup- 
port. The  student  ought  not  to  be  encouraged  to  rely  on 
any  one  book  as  an  unquestionable  authority.  The  habit  of 
consulting  different  authors  on  every  question  of  importance 
should  be  early  acquired  and  should  be  constantly  stimulated. 
For  the  accomplishment  of  these  ends  it  will  ordinarily  be 
found,  I  think,  that  the  most  successful  instruction  is  made 


TEACHING   HISTORY.  211 

up  of  a  judicious  combination  of  the  text-book,  the  lecture, 
and  the  method  of  personal  research. 

When  the  college  student  is  ready  to  begin  his  studies  in 
history,  he  is  not  yet  prepared  for  the  most  advanced  work. 
He  is  deficient  in  two  very  important  qualifications.  In  the 
first  place,  he  is  not  in  possession  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
important  historical  facts  ;  and,  in  the  second,  he  is  not  yet 
sufficiently  familiar  with  what  may  be  called  the  methods  and 
laws  of  historical  development.  To  supply  these  deficiences 
should  be  the  object  of  the  earlier  historical  studies  during 
the  undergraduate  course. 

At  the  outset  the  student  may  be  presumed  to  have  some 
knowledge  of  general  history,  and  of  the  history  of  his  own 
country.  This  may  be  a  somewhat  violent  presumption : 
but  it  is  probably  not  wise  to  occupy  the  time  of  the  under- 
graduate with  such  elementary  studies  as  are  taught  in  all  the 
best  of  our  high  schools  and  academies.  Better  results  are 
likely  to  follow  from  devoting  our  energies  to  an  examina- 
tion of  such  selected  periods  and  nationalities  as  hold  out  the 
most  credible  assurances  of  profit. 

But  what  periods  shall  be  selected,  and  how  shall  the 
instruction  be  given? 

Studies  in  the  history  of  our  own  country  and  in  the  his- 
torj*  of  England  should  doubtless  occupy  the  foremost  place  ; 
but  they  should  not  crowd  out  studies  of  a  more  general  na- 
ture. I  cannot  better  point  out  what  I  think  these  studies 
should  be  than  by  indicating  what  is  done  at  the  present  time 
in  the  University  of  Michigan.  Some  years  ago  a  course  was 
provided  for,  by  means  of  which  two  lessons  a  week  for  one 
3rear  are  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  Political  and  Social  History 
of  England  before  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  Wars.  Another 
course  of  two  lessons  a  week,  for  half  a  year,  is  devoted  to  a 
study  of  the  Reforms  in  the  English  Government  during  the 


212  ON   METHODS    OF 

present  century.  This  is  supplemented  by  a  course  of  two 
lectures  a  week,  for  half  a  year,  on  The  Theories  and  Meth- 
ods of  the  English  Government.  In  American  History,  a 
course  on  The  Political  and  Social  Development  of  the  Colo- 
nies is  followed  by  two  courses  on  The  Constitutional  History 
of  the  United  States  since  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary 
War.  These  courses  in  American  History  occupy  the  stu- 
dent once  a  week  during  half  a  year,  and  twice  a  week  dur- 
ing a  whole  year.  Of  a  more  general  nature,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  broader  views  of  the  laws  of  historic  devel- 
opment, one  course  is  given  on  The  History  of  Political  and 
Social  Institutions,  one  on  The  General  HistoiT  of  Europe 
from  the  Reformation  to  the  French  Revolution,  one  on  The 
History  of  Civilization  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  one  on 
The  Rise  and  Development  of  Prussia.  Not  all  of  these 
courses  are  absolutely  prerequisite  for  admission  to  the  more 
advanced  work  of  the  historical  and  political  seminaries, 
but  they  may  all  be  regarded  as  preliminary  to  it.  Crown- 
ing the  work  of  the  whole  are  three  seminaries,  one  being 
devoted  to  a  study  of  the  Political  Institutions  of  England, 
one  to  those  of  America,  and  one  to  Comparative  Methods 
of  Local  Administration. 

What  has  already  been  said  will  afford  sufficient  answer, 
perhaps,  to  the  question  of  method.  But  a  single  illustra- 
tion will  probably  give  a  more  definite  idea.  The  lecture  of 
to-day,  in  the  course  on  the  History  of  Institutions,  happens 
to  be  devoted  to  a  study  of  Roman  Provincial  Administra- 
tion. The  following  topics  were  assigned  to  the  several 
groups  of  the  class  for  the  lessons  of  next  week :  ' '  What 
light  is  thrown  on  Roman  Provincial  methods  by  Plutarch's 
Life  of  Lucullus?"  "What  by  Cicero's  oration  against 
Verres?"  "What  by  Guizot's  essay  on  the  Regime  Munici- 
palf"  "What  by  Arnold's  chapter  on  'The  System  of 


TEACHING   HISTOKY.  213 

Taxation  ? "  In  this  manner  a  class  may  easily  be  led 
through  their  own  researches  to  see  how  completely  the  sys- 
tematic practice  of  injustice  finally  dissolved  all  the  bonds 
that  bound  the  Roman  provinces  to  the  general  government. 
This  accomplished,  the  downfall  of  the  Empire  is  no  longer  a 
question  that  will  give  any  difficulty  to  the  student. 

The  work  of  the  historical  seminary  is  of  a  higher  order. 
Each  class  consists  of  not  more  than  about  ten  members,  and 
each  meeting  is  not  less  than  about  two  hours  in  length. 
Each  of  the  questions  given  out  for  investigation  is  such  as  to 
occupy  the  attention  of  the  student  during  at  least  half  a  year; 
and  all  of  the  questions  are  designed  to  be  of  such  cognate 
significance  as  to  be  of  interest  to  all  the  members  of  the  class. 
At  the  weekly  meetings  each  member  gives  an  account  of  his 
own  investigations,  and  listens  to  such  inquiries  and  sugges- 
tions as  may  be  made  by  the  teacher  and  the  other  members 
of  the  class.  The  titles  of  two  or  three  papers  prepared  dur- 
ing the  present  semester  will  be  enough  to  indicate  the  nature 
of  the  work  done.  Among  others,  essays  founded  on  origi- 
nal research  have  being  written  on  "A  History  of  the 
Appointing  Power  of  the  President " ;  "A  History  of  the 
Land  Grants  for  Education  in  the  North-west"  ;  and  "Crim- 
inal Legislation  in  New  England  during  the  Colonial  Period." 

It  need  not  be  added  that  this  is  true  university  work  of  a 
high  order.  Of  course  such  studies  are  impracticable, 
except  in  an  institution  where  large  liberties  in  the  way  of 
elective  courses  are  given,  and  where  preliminary  historical 
studies  are  begun  early  in  the  student's  collegiate  career. 
But  my  own  experience  leads  to  the  belief  that  if  the  student 
enters  upon  the  proper  antecedent  studies  in  the  second  year 
of  his  course,  he  may  be  brought  in  the  fourth  year  to  a  grade 
of  work  which  need  not  shrink  from  comparison  with  that 
carried  on  in  the  universities  of  the  old  world. 


THE  METHODS  OF  HISTOKICAL 
STUDY  AND  RESEARCH  IN  COLUMBIA  COLLEGE. 


BY  PROFESSOR  JOHN  W.  BURGESS,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY. 

IN  order  to  a  clear  presentation  of  this  subject,  one  which 
shall  escape  the  possibilities  of  a  misunderstanding,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  describe  briefly  the  general  peculiarities 
of  the  educational  system  of  that  complex  of  institutions  to 
which  the  name  Columbia  College  is  now  attached.  The 
most  general  principle  of  that  system  distinguishes  the  Col- 
lege into  two  parts  ;  viz. :  the  Gymnasium,  the  College  accord- 
ing to  the  old  signification  of  that  name  in  the  United  States, 

—  as  we  term  it  here,  the  School  of  Arts,  and  the  graduate 
and  professional  courses,  the  University.     This  distinction, 
however,  is,  without  further  explanation,  liable  to  a  miscon- 
ception ;  for  the  last  year  of  the  School  of  Arts,  what  is  gen- 
erally known  as  the  College  senior  year,  is  counted  to  the 
University  in  the  non-professional  courses  of  the  University, 

—  those  courses  which,  in  a  German  University,  would  be 
placed  under  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy.     It  is  at  this  point, 
viz.,  the  beginning  of  the  senior  year  in  the  School  of  Arts, 
that  the  courses  of  study  become  purely  and  wholly  elective, 
and  the  methods  of  instruction  purely  and  distinctively  those 
of    the  University.     This   year,   with  two  graduate   years, 
forms  the  University  period  for  the  students  who  pass  from 
the  School  of  Arts  into  the  University,  or  who  come  from 
other  Colleges  at  the  end  of  their  junior  year.     If,  however, 
they  be  graduates  of  other  Colleges,  in   which  the  courses 
of  the  senior  year  correspond  to,  or  are  an  equivalent  for. 


216  METHODS   OF   HISTORICAL   STUDY 

the  courses  in  the  School  of  Arts,  they  are  admitted  to  the 
second  3'ear  of  the  University. 

If,  now,  the  reader  will  keep  this  distinction  and  these 
explanations  clearly  in  mind,  a  full  comprehension  of  the 
methods  of  historic  study  and  research  at  present  followed 
in  Columbia  College  will  be  easily  and  rapidly  attained. 

In  the  Gymnasium,  — the  first  three  years  of  the  School  of 
Arts,  —  the  method  is,  of  course,  the  gymnastic  method, 
and  the  purpose  sought  the  gymnastic  purpose  :  that  is,  the 
daily  drill  upon  text-books  and  hand-books  of  history  by 
recitation,  question  and  answer,  as  required  studies,  for  the 
purpose  of  fixing  and  classifying  in  the  mind  of  the  student 
the  elements  of  historical  geography,  the  chronology  and 
outward  frame  of  historic  events,  the  biographies  of  his- 
toric characters,  and  the  definitions  of  historical  terms  and 
expressions.  This  is,  of  course,  the  indispensably  neces- 
sary preparation  for  every  student  who  would  come  with  a 
properly  disciplined  historical  memory,  stored  with  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  elementary  historical  data,  to  the  work  of 
the  University  in  this  branch.  If  this  be  not  properly  ac- 
complished, the  foundation  for  everything  further  is  want- 
ing, and  the  instruction  received  in  the  University  will  be 
to  a  large  degree  unappreciated,  to  say  the  least.  I  would 
venture  to  assert  that  to  all  persons  who  have  taken  any 
part  in  the  attempt  to  develop  a  University  in  the  United 
States  the  want  of  a  true  gymnastic  training  in  the  elements 
of  knowledge  has  appeared  a  most  cr}-ing  one.  And  if, 
while  so  many  of  our  Colleges,  both  great  and  small,  are 
affecting  to  despise  their  gymnastic  calling,  and  seeking  to 
become  Universities  through  the  fallacious  process  of  simply 
making  their  gymnastic  studies  elective  and  optional,  some 
Apostle  of  the  Gymnasium  would  arise  and  found  Academies 
which  would  stand  true  to  the  gymnastic  method  and  pur- 


IN   COLUMBIA   COLLEGE.  217 

pose,  such  an  one  would  do  for  the  development  of  the  true 
University  a  far  greater  work  than  the  College  which  ceases 
to  be  the  one  thing  without  becoming  the  other. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  methods  pursued  and  the  purposes 
aimed  at  in  the  University  courses  of  history  are  more  com- 
plex, as  well  as  different,  and  therefore  require  a  more  mi- 
nute presentation.  In  the  first  place,  attendance  upon  these 
courses  is  purety  optional  with  the  student.  There  would  be 
a  great  loss  both  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  instruc- 
tion were  the  professor  obliged  to  accommodate  himself  to 
the  level  of  hearers  whose  tastes  and  talents  were  not  in  the 
line  pursued ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  an  unnat- 
ural limitation  upon,  if  not  a  total  destruction  of,  individual 
genius,  were  the  student  of  the  University  not  permitted  to 
construct  the  combination  of  his  studies  for  himself.  The 
discipline  and  general  elementary  instruction  of  the  Gymna- 
sium ought  to  have  developed  in  his  own  consciousness  a 
better  knowledge  of  his  own  intellectual  peculiarities  than 
any  other  person  or  body  of  persons  can  have.  If  it  has 
not,  then  it  will  not  matter  much,  as  a  general  rule,  where 
he  may  fall.  Consideration  for  him  who  has  no  genius  at  all 
must  never  lead  us  to  abandon  the  method  in  the  University 
for  the  cultivation  of  a  true  intellectual  peculiarity ;  for 
without  such  a  development  there  can  be  no  advance  in  the 
discovery  of  new  truth  or  in  a  fuller  comprehension  of  old 
truth.  It  is  this  consideration  which  has  led  the  authorities 
in  Columbia  College  to  permit  the  University  students  of 
history  not  only  to  select  what  courses  they  may  choose  in 
history,  but  also  to  combine  therewith  such  courses  in  phi- 
lology, literature,  philosophy-,  natural  science  and  law  as  they 
may  desire.  Our  experience  in  the  working  of  the  method 
has  hardly  yet  been  long  enough  to  pronounce  with  confi- 
dence upon  results,  So  far  as  my  own  observation  reaches, 


218  METHODS   OF   HISTORICAL   STUDY 

however,  I  feel  entirety  satisfied  that  the  comprehension  of 
history  has  been  greatly  broadened  and  deepened  by  the 
variety  of  combinations  into  which  it  has  thus  been  brought, 
and  I  cannot  but  believe  that  the  other  elements  of  the  com- 
binations have  experienced  a  like  advantage. 

In  the  second  place.  The  method  of  instruction  in  the 
University  branches  of  history  is  chiefly  by  original  lecture. 
And  this  for  two  reasons  :  the  one  relating  to  the  professor, 
the  other  to  the  student.  The  University  professor  must  be 
a  worker  among  original  material.  He  must  present  to  his 
student  his  own  view  derived  from  the  most  original  sources 
attainable.  He  must  construct  history  out  of  the  chaos  of 
original  historic  atoms.  If  he  does  not  do  this,  but  contents 
himself  with  simply  repeating  the  views  of  others,  it  is 
probably  because  he  is  not  capable  of  it ;  in  which  case  he  is 
no  IJniversity  professor  at  all,  but  at  best  only  a  drill  master 
for  the  Gymnasium.  While  the  University  student  must 
learn  among  his  first  lessons  that  truth,  as  man  knows  it,  is 
no  ready-made  article  of  certain  and  objective  character, 
that  it  is  a  human  interpretation,  and  subject  therefore  to 
the  fallibility  of  human  insight  and  reasoning,  —  one-sided, 
colored,  incomplete.  Unless  this  thought  be  continually  im- 
pressed upon  him  by  the  method  of  the  instruction  which  he 
receives,  he  will,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  make  dogma  of 
his  learning,  and  this  is  the  negation  of  progress  in  the  wider 
and  more  perfect  comprehension  of  truth.  Now  instruction 
by  means  of  the  text-book  in  the  University  has  always  the 
tendency  to  the  production  of  this  result,  —  unless,  per- 
chance, the  professor  uses  the  text  more  for  the  purpose  of 
confuting  than  teaching,  in  which  case  he  is  realty  lecturing 
and  not  heariug  recitations.  What  is  contained  iu  a  book 
which  has  been  studied  by  classes  gone  before  has,  in  the 
mind  of  a  student  not  yet  accustomed  to  sharp  criticism,  too 


IN   COLUMBIA   COLLEGE.  219 

large  a  presumption  in  its  favor.  He  is  too  ready  to  acqui- 
esce in  its  propositions,  and  let  memory  act  where  the  more 
difficult  processes  of  criticism  and  judgment  should  be  called 
into  play.  On  the  other  hand,  when  he  has  the  person  of 
his  author  always  before  his  eyes,  observes  his  weaknesses 
as  well  as  his  strength,  then  the  true  scholastic  skepticism 
and  belligerency  will  be  aroused,  and  criticism,  judgment, 
reasoning,  insight,  be  developed. 

Third.  But  this  is  only  what  might  be  termed  the  outward 
form  of  method  generally.  As  to  the  internal  principles  or 
purposes  of  our  method  of  historical  instruction  in  particular, 
we  seek  to  teach  the  student,  first,  how  to  get  hold  of  a  his- 
toric fact,  how  to  distinguish  fact  from  fiction,  how  to  divest 
it  as  far  as  possible  of  coloring  or  exaggeration.  We  send 
him,  therefore,  to  the  most  original  sources  attainable  for  his 
primary  information.  If  there  be  more  than  one  original 
source  upon  the  same  fact,  we  teach  him  to  set  these  in  com- 
parison or  contrast,  to  observe  their  agreements  and  discrep- 
ancies, and  to  attain  a  point  of  view  from  which  all,  or  if  this 
is  not  possible,  the  most  of  the  evidence  may  appear  recon- 
cilable. And  we  warn  him  not  to  accept  a  statement  not 
well  authenticated  for  a  fact,  upon  the  principle  that  it  is  far 
better  for  the  historical  investigator  to  think  that  he  does  not 
know  what  he  may  know  than  to  think  he  knows  what  he  may 
not  know.  We  undertake,  in  the  second  place,  to  teach  the 
student  to  set  the  facts  which  he  has  thus  attained  in  their 
chronological  order,  to  the  further  end  of  setting  them  in 
their  order  as  cause  and  effect.  And  we  seek  to  make  him 
clearly  comprehend  and  continually  feel  that  the  latter  pro- 
cess is  the  one  most  delicate  and  critical  which  the  historical 
student  is  called  upon  to  undertake,  in  that  he  is  continually 
tempted  to  account  that  which  is  mere  antecedent  and  conse- 
quent as  being  cause  and  effect.  It  is  just  in  this  process, 


220  METHODS    OF    HISTORICAL    STUDY 

of  course,  that  the  true  historical  genius  most  clearly  reveals 
itself.  It  is  just  in  this  process  that  genius  is  most  neces- 
sary to  accomplish  anything  valuable.  It  is  therefore  most 
difficult  to  formulate  rules  upon  the  point  for  the  direction  of 
the  historical  student  who  may  have  no  genius  for  his  work. 
What  we  most  insist  upon,  however,  is  a  critical  comparison 
of  the  sequence  of  facts  in  the  history  of  different  states  or 
peoples  at  a  like  period  in  the  development  of  their  civiliza- 
tions. If  this  be  done  with  patience,  care,  and  judgment, 
the  student  who  possesses  a  moderate  degree  of  true  logic 
will  soon  learn  to  distinguish,  to  some  extent  at  least,  ante- 
cedent and  consequent  merely  from  cause  and  effect. 

Fourth.  After  the  facts  have  been  determined  and  the 
causal  nexus  established  we  endeavor  to  teach  the  student  to 
look  for  the  institutions  and  ideas  which  have  been  developed 
through  the  sequence  of  events  in  the  civilization  of  an  age 
or  people.  This  I  might  term  the  ultimate  object  of  our 
entire  method  of  historical  instruction.  With  us  history  is  the 
chief  preparation  for  the  study  of  the  legal  and  political  sci- 
ences. Through  it  we  seek  to  find  the  origin,  follow  the 
growth  and  learn  the  meaning  of  our  legal,  political,  and 
economic  principles  and  institutions.  We  class  it  therefore 
no  longer  with  fiction  or  rhetoric  or  belles-lettres,  but  with 
logic,  philosophy,  ethics.  We  value  it,  therefore,  not  by  its 
brilliancy,  but  by  its  productiveness. 

Lastly.  We  would  not  consider  the  circle  of  our  method  as 
complete,  did  it  make  no  provision  for  the  public  practice  of 
the  students.  To  this  end  we  have  established  an  Academy 
of  the  historic,  jural,  and  political  sciences,  composed  of  the 
graduates  of  the  University  in  these  branches.  Before  this 
body,  in  its  regular  weekly  meetings,  each  member  has  the 
opportunity  and  assumes  the  duty  of  presenting  one  original 
work  each  year.  The  work  is  then  the  property  of  the  Acad- 


IN   COLUMBIA   COLLEGE.  221 

emy  to  publish  or  preserve  in  its  archives  as  it  will.  The 
best  production  of  the  year  in  the  Academy,  as  adjudged  by 
the  University  Faculty  in  these  departments,  is  rewarded  by 
a  prize  lectureship  in  the  University.  In  this  manner  we  seek 
to  make  our  students  not  simply  pupils  but  co-workers, 
not  simply  recipients  but  givers  with  interest  upon  what  the}' 
have  received  and  to  open  the  way  for  genius,  talent,  and 
industry  in  these  branches  to  positions  from  which  they  may 
be  employed  in  the  further  development  and  expansion  of 
these  departments. 

As  I  indicated  above,  we  have  hardly  yet  had  sufficient 
experience  with  our  method  and  system  to  pronounce  defi- 
nitely and  finally  upon  results.  They  have  not  yet  made 
their  cycle.  But  we  are  satisfied  with  the  progress,  and 
encouraged  by  the  prospects. 

COLUMBIA  COLLEGE, 
April  27, 1883. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 


A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  structure  of  the  earth  on  which 
we  dwell  should  underlie  and  precede  all  our  studies 
of  history  and  political  science.  We  have  been  accustomed 
to  study  mind  psychologically,  without  studying  the  body  in 
which  the  mind  dwells.  So  we  have  considered  the  historical 
movements  of  man  without  considering  the  theatre  on  which 
he  moves.  Edition  after  edition  of  the  historical  atlases  of 
the  learned  German,  Von  Spruner,  was  published,  with  most 
elaborate  and  exact  maps  of  Greece,  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
of  mediaeval  Europe,  German}-,  Italy,  etc.,  but  not  a  single 
map  showing  geological  formations.  A  clearer  understand- 
ing of  the  importance  of  the  ph}-sical  structure  of  the  earth 
would  have  made  his  maps  much  better  than  they  are. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  in  any  exposition  of  these  rela- 
tions, constant  use  must  be  made  of  maps  ;  in  fact,  the  work 
cannot  be  carried  on  without  them.  The  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  preparing  such  representations  are  great,  for  we  need 
to  exhibit  each  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  as  something 
cut  out  by  the  hands  of  a  sculptor,  which  has  a  distinct  phy- 
siognomy, to  be  recognized  and  known  as  definitely  as  our 
own  physiognomies  arc  known.  The  most  direct  method 
is  by  the  relief  map  or  atlas.  But  the  difficulty  of  repre- 
senting a  solid  upon  a  plane  surface  has  been  to  some  extent 
overcome,  different  elevations  being  represented  by  different 
colors. 


224  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY   AND   HISTORY. 

Observe  some  of  the  things  which  a  good  physical  map  of 
the  United  States  tells  us.  You  see  a  long  extent  of  sea- 
board, with  mountains  receding  from  the  coast.  When  the 
first  settlers  landed,  they  found  a  wall,  from  3500  to  7000 
feet  high,  hemming  them  in.  We  see  here  the  door  through 
which  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  goes  west;  also 
the  path  of  the  Erie  Canal.  We  see  where  the  Pennsyl- 
vania people  found  a  path  over  the  mountains,  and  others 
after  them.  Without  a  physical  map  of  North  America,  the 
unit}'  of  the  French  dominions,  Canada  and  Louisiana,  would 
hardly  be  discerned  ;  with  such  a  map,  this  unity  is  made 
strikingly  evident,  and  the  process  of  acquisition  becomes 
clear.  A  glance  at  the  broad  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  as  rep- 
resented upon  such  a  map,  will  show  that  it  was  predestined 
to  become  one  of  the  greatest  granaries  of  the  world.  The 
history  of  the  peculiar  attitude  of  California  during  the  civil 
war  can  be  studied  only  in  the  light  of  its  physical  relations 
to  the  rest  of  the  Union.  Thus,  the  history  of  this  country 
was  largely  written  before  man  came  here.  It  is  written  on 
the  map,  and  every  citizen  ought  to  have  it  written  on  his 
mind.  Every  student  of  political  history  or  political  economy- 
should  understand  these  great  physical  features  of  his  coun- 
try, not  only  in  broad  outline,  but  in  detail. 

As  examples  of  exposition  of  our  physical  geography,  one 
may  mention  Professor  Shaler's  chapter  in  Winsor's  forth- 
coming Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  the 
prefatory  chapter  in  Palfrey's  New  England,  and  Professor 
Whitney's  chapter  in  the  Guide-Boole  to  the  Yosemite,  and  in 
Walker's  Statistical  Atlas  of  the  United  States,  whose  maps 
also  are  highly  useful. 

If  we  turn  to  Europe,  the  connection  between  ph}-sicnl 
geography  and  history  is  presented  in  the  same  striking  wa}', 
and  in  even  greater  variety.  Observe  on  any  relief  map  how 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY    AND    HISTORY.  225 

manifestly  the  plain  of  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  carved  out 
at  the  base  of  the  enormous  wall  of  the  Alps,  seems  formed 
to  be  the  garden  of  Europe  and  the  theatre  of  wars.  As  for 
Greece,  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  he  who  does  not 
understand  its  physical  conformation  can  have  no  proper 
conception  of  its  political  history.  The  connection  between 
the  two  is  admirably  displayed  in  the  opening  pages  of 
Curtius'  History  of  Greece,  and  in  a  delightful  chapter 
in  Taine's  Lectures  on  Art,  in  which  book  a  similar  service 
is  also  done  for  Flanders.  Also  of  note  is  Professor 
Conrad  Bursian's  essay,  Ueber  den  Einfluss  der  Natur  des 
Griechischen  Landes  auf  den  Cliarakter  seiner  Bewohner,  in 
the  Jahresberichte  of  the  Geographische  Gesellscliaft  in  Miln- 
chen,  1877.  Further  west,  notice  the  remarkable  cut  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  North  Sea  (the  valleys  of  the 
Rhone  and  Rhine),  which  made  a  Lotharingia  possible.  A 
relief  map  of  France  makes  clear  the  reasons  for  the  direc- 
tions taken  by  the  several  invading  tribes  in  406  A.D.  The 
position  of  Belfort,  commanding  the  upper  Rhine  valle}-, 
explains  the  vigor  with  which  it  was  defended  in  1870;  we 
see,  too,  why  Germany  fixed  her  boundary  where  she  did. 
Again,  in  England,  who  does  not  know,  to  mention  one 
illustration  only,  how  decisive  was  the  influence  of  such 
geographical  features  as  the  great  forests  upon  the  course  of 
the  English  conquest  of  Britain?  (See  Guest's  Origines 
Celticae,  1882,  Green's  Making  of  England,  and  Professor 
Pearson's  valuable  Historical  Maps.)  For  similar  illustra- 
tions, one  may  consult  with  profit  Professor  Archibald 
Geikie's  paper  on  Tlie  Geological  Influences  which  have 
affected  English  History,  in  Macmillan,  March,  1882.  If 
we  turn  to  Asia,  the  connection  between  its  great  plains 
and  the  careers  of  its  great  conquerors  could  scarcely  be 
more  evident  than  it  is. 


226  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND   HISTORY. 

All  these  are  isolated  and  random  illustrations.  Indefi- 
nitely multiplied,  as  they  might  easily  be,  they  would  irresist- 
ibly force  the  conviction  that  the  influence  of  physical  geog- 
raphy upon  history  is  a  matter  which  no  one  can  afford  to 
neglect,  and  that  a  teacher  of  histor}-  who  does  not  make  fre- 
quent use  of  physical  maps  commits  a  grave  error. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  mention  that  prominent  among  the 
standard  works  of  general  scope  which  may  be  used  in  such 
studies  are,  beside  the  books  of  Hitter  and  Peschel,  Professor 
Guyot's  Earth  and  Man,  G.  P.  Marsh's  The  Earth  as  Modi- 
fied by  Human  Action,  and  Frederick  von  Hellwald's  Die 
Erde  und  Hire  Volker.  Into  the  minor  literature  it  is  impos- 
sible here  to  enter  (an  important  specimen  is  Wilhelm  Ros- 
cher's  Betraclitungen  uber  die  geographische  Lage  der  grossen 
Stadte,  in  his  Ansichten,  I.,  pp.  317-363),  but  it  can  be 
found,  clearly  arranged,  in  the  bibliographical  lists  in  suc- 
cessive volumes  of  Petermann's  Mittheilungen,  the  best  of 
geographical  journals.  An  index  to  the  maps  in  Petermann 
is  now  appearing  in  the  Harvard  University  Bulletin.  As  to 
wall-maps,  the  most  useful  are  perhaps  the  new  Kiepert 
series  and  Professor  Guyot's. 


WHY  DO  CHILDREN  DISLIKE  HISTORY? 


BY  THOMAS  WENTWOHTH  HIGGINSON. 


IT  has  always  seemed  to  me  creditable  to  the  brains  of 
children  that  they  dislike  what  we  call  the  study  of 
history.  It  is  surety  unfair  to  blame  them,  when  they  cer- 
tainly like  it  quite  as  well  as  do  their  parents.  The  father 
brings  home  to  his  little  son,  from  the  public  library,  the 
first  volume  of  Hildreth's  United  States,  and  says  to  him, 
"  There,  my  son,  is  a  book  for  you,  and  there  are  five  more 
volumes  just  like  it."  Then  he  goes  back  to  his  Sunday 
Herald,  and  his  wife  reverts  to  But  Yet  a  Woman,  or  Mr. 
Isaacs;  both  feeling  that  they  have  done  their  duty  to  the 
child's  mind.  "Would  they  ever  read  through  the  six  volumes 
of  Hildreth  consecutively  for  themselves  ? 

Yet  it  needs  but  little  reflection  to  see  that  no  study  is  in 
itself — apart  from  the  treatment  —  so  interesting  as  history. 
For  what  is  it  that  most  interests  every  child?  Human 
beings.  What  is  history  ?  The  record  of  human  beings, 
that  is  all. 

"We  are  accustomed  to  say,  and  truly,  that  every  child  is  a 
born  naturalist.  But  where  is  the  child  who  would  not  at  any 
time  leave  the  societ}-  of  animals  for  that  of  human  beings  ? 
Even  the  bear  and  the  raccoon  are  not  personally  more  inter- 
esting to  the  country  boy  than  to  hear  the  endless  tales  of  the 
men  who  have  trapped  the  one  and  shot  the  other.  The  boy 
by  the  seaside  would  rather  listen  to  the  sailors'  yarns  than 
go  fishing.  Even  stories  about  animals  must  have  the  human 


228  WHY    DO   CHILDREN    DISLIKE   HISTORY? 

element  thrown  in,  to  make  them  fully  fascinating  ;  children 
must  hear,  not  only  about  the  wolf  and  his  den,  but  about 
General  Putnam,  who  went  into  it ;  and  they  would  rather 
hear  about  Indian  wars  than  either,  because  there  all  the  par- 
ticipants are  men.  The  gentlest  girl  likes  to  read  the  Swiss 
Family  Robinson,  or  to  dress  up  for  a  "  centennial  tea-party." 
But  early  Puritan  history  is  all  Swiss  Family  Robinson  with 
many  added  excitements  thrown  in ;  and  the  colonial  and 
revolutionary  periods  are  all  a  centennial  tea-part}'.  If  wo 
could  only  make  the  characters  live  and  move,  with  their  own 
costume  and  their  own  looks,  in  our  instruction,  they  would 
absorb  the  attention  of  every  child. 

It  is  idle  to  say,  "But  children  prefer  fiction  to  fact." 
Not  at  all ;  they  prefer  fact  to  fiction,  if  it  is  only  made 
equally  interesting.  The  test  is  this.  Tell  a  boy  a  story, 
which  he  supposes  to  be  true,  and  then  disclose  that  it  is  all 
an  invention.  If  the  boy  preferred  fiction  to  fact,  he  would 
be  pleased.  Not  at  all ;  he  is  disappointed.  On  the  other 
hand,  if,  after  telling  some  absorbing  and  marvellous  tale, 
you  can  honestly  add,  "  My  dear  child,  all  this  really  hap- 
pened to  your  father  when  he  was  little,  or  to  your  respected 
great-grandmother,"  the  child  is  delighted. 

In  truth,  the  whole  situation,  in  respect  to  history,  is 
described  in  that  well-known  conversation  between  the  Eng- 
lish clergyman  and  the  play-actor.  "Why  is  it,"  asked  the 
clergyman,  "  that  you,  who  represent  what  everybody  knows 
to  be  false,  obtain  more  attention  than  we  who  deal  in  the 
most  momentous  realities  ! "  "It  is,"  said  the  actor,  "because 
you  represent  the  truth  so  that  it  seems  like  fiction,  while  we 
depict  fiction  in  such  a  manner  that  it  has  the  effect  of 
truth." 

The  moral  of  it  all  is,  that  the  fault  is  not  in  the  child,  but 
in  us  who  write  the  books  and  teach  the  lessons.  History 


WHY    DO   CHILDREN   DISLIKE    1IISTO11Y?  229 

is  but  a  series  of  tales  of  human  beings.  Human  beings 
form  the  theme  which  is  of  all  things  most  congenial  to  the 
child's  mind.  If  the  subject  loses  all  its  charms  by  our 
handling,  the  fault  is  ours,  and  we  should  not  blame  the 
child. 


GRADATION  AND  THE  TOPICAL  METHOD  OF 
HISTORICAL  STUDY, 


BY  PROFESSOR  W.  F.  ALLEN,  WISCONSIN  UNIVERSITY. 

FOR  instruction  in  historj*,  as  in  other  branches,  there 
are  three  distinct  periods  to  be  considered :  childhood, 
school-life,  and  college-life.  For  the  first  of  these  I  have 
nothing  to  offer  beyond  the  excellent  remarks  made  by  our 
author  on  page  139.  What  the  child  needs  is  to  have  the 
imagination  quickened,  and  the  memory  stored  with  incidents 
and  associations.  It  is  not  so  necessary  that  there  should 
be  any  definite  plan  or  order  in  the  acquisition  of  these 
interesting  stories,  great  names,  and  important  events.  The 
mind  merely  needs  to  have  associations  and  memories  of 
these  ;  their  arrangement  will  come  later. 

Formal  instruction  in  history,  he  goes  on  to  say,  may 
begin  at  about  the  age  of  ten  ;  but  the  length  of  time  that  it 
is  to  be  kept  up  differs  very  greatly  with  different  pupils,  and 
it  is  obvious  that  we  cannot  advantageously  lay  out  the  same 
course  for  those  who  are  to  go  to  college,  those  who  are  to 
pass  through  the  high  school  merely,  and  those  who  have  to 
be  satisfied  with  a  grammar-school  education.  The  begin- 
ning, however,  must  be  nearly  the  same  with  all,  and  it  will 
be  found  that  the  longest  course  will,  in  the  main,  coincide 
with  the  shorter  ones,  so  far  as  they  go. 

All  alike  must  begin  with  the  history  of  their  own  country, 
and  with  this  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  pupils  must 
be  content.  So  far  there  is  no  difference  of  opinion.  When, 
however,  we  pass  to  the  next  stage,  and  ask  what  branch  of 
history  should  follow  that  of  the  United  States,  the  answers 


232  GRADES    AND   TOPICS   IN 

would  be  various.  The  usual  practice  is  to  take  up  General 
History  at  this  point ;  but  I  think  the  practice  is  not  a  wise 
one.  Very  few  pupils  at  this  age  have  a  sufficiently  devel- 
oped historical  sense  to  follow  intelligently  the  fortunes  of 
several  nations  side  by  side,  now  studying  the  separate  his- 
tory of  each  country  independently,  then  passing  to  the  com- 
plicated international  relations,  which  make  up  the  current 
of  modern  history.  In  antiquity  there  was  but  one  empire 
at  a  time.  General  history  is,  therefore,  the  separate  histo- 
ries of  Egypt,  Assyria,  Persia,  etc.,  taken  up  successively. 
In  modern  times  these  separate  histories  have  to  be  taken  up 
contemporaneously.  There  is  no  one  thread  to  be  followed, 
but  a  multitude  of  threads  to  be  woven  into  a  connected  whole  ; 
and  my  experience  is,  that  an  attempt  to  do  this,  with  only 
the  preparation  that  the  study  of  United  States  history  gives, 
results,  for  most  scholars,  in  a  bewildering  confusion. 

Our  author  lays  down  the  correct  principle  on  page  146  : 
"  The  way  to  that  which  is  general  is  through  that  which  is 
special."  General  history  cannot  be  profitably  studied  until, 
first,  the  historical  imagination  has  been  trained  and  the  his- 
torical sense  developed  by  abundance  of  stories,  and  by 
instruction  in  national  history ;  and,  secondl}',  at  least  one 
of  the  separate  threads  has  been  traced  by  itself,  and  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  familiarity  thus  gained  with  the  leading  events 
which  are  to  come  under  consideration.  The  separate  annals 
of  at  least  one  country  should  be  studied  before  general  his- 
tory is  begun.  Which  country  should  be  selected  for  this 
purpose  for  American  schools  can,  of  course,  be  no  question. 
American  citizens  need  to  know  the  history  of  England  next 
to  that  of  their  own  country.  I  should  even  desire  that  a 
second  thread  should  be  taken  up  by  itself  —  in  the  history 
of  France  or  Germany — before  general  history  is  studied; 
but  this  is  not  essential. 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  233 

Further  details  must  depend  upon  the  extent  of  the  course 
and  its  object.  If  there  can  be  but  one  term's  work,  besides 
United  States  history,  I  would  have  the  history  of  England. 
If  there  is  plenty  of  time,  I  would  have  ancient  historj-, 
English  history,  and  French  history  all  precede  general  his- 
tory, or,  if  need  be,  take  its  place. 

But  I  can  conceive  of  something  better  even  than  this. 
To  go  back  to  our  first  question :  What  does  the  American 
boy  really  need,  who  is  to  have  only  one  term  of  history 
before  he  goes  out  into  the  world,  and  becomes  an  American 
citizen  ?  Would  not  everybody  admit  that,  while  the  Plan- 
tagenets  are  of  more  importance  for  him  than  the  Hohen- 
staufen,  and  Oliver  Cromwell  than  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the 
events  and  personages  of  the  last  hundred  years  are  of  more 
importance  than  either? 

Let  us  pass  now  to  the  college  course.  Only  a  very  small 
proportion  of  our  people  go  through  a  college  course,  and  of 
these  only  a  small  proportion  —  under  our  present  system 
of  elective  studies  —  take  any  extended  course  in  history. 
Here,  too,  I  have  tried  a  good  many  experiments,  and  have 
arrived  at  a  scheme  which  appears  to  answer  my  require- 
ments very  well. 

The  field  of  history  is  so  vast  and  varied  that  it  is  impos- 
sible, in  any  college  course,  to  treat  all  the  subjects  that 
deserve  to  be  taken  up.  All  that  we  can  do  is  to  lay  out  a 
course,  or  a  number  of  courses,  which  appear  to  meet,  as  a 
whole,  the  needs  of  the  largest  number,  and  which  will  allow 
selection,  in  accordance  with  tastes,  to  those  who  do  not  care 
to  take  it  as  a  whole. 

We  require  for  admission,  in  the  classical  courses  of  this 
University,  ancient  history,  the  history  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  history  of  England.  We  are  able,  therefore,  to  take 
for  granted  something  of  an  acquaintance  with  the  leading 


234  GRADES   AND   TOPICS  IN 

events  and  characters  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  The 
only  history  which  is  required  in  our  curriculum  is  a  term  of 
United  States  history  for  the  juniors  of  the  classical  depart- 
ment. Besides  this,  there  are  three  elective  courses,  each 
carried  through  the  year :  one  as  a  full  course,  the  others  as 
half  courses. 

In  laying  out  this  work,  we  are  not  limited,  as  in  the 
common  schools,  by  the  necessity  of  considering  what  is 
most  essential  for  those  who  are  soon  to  leave  school.  We 
are  not  to  lay  out  a  single  course  which  all  must  follow,  but 
a  series  of  courses,  which  may  be  taken  either  in  whole  or  in 
part,  according  to  individual  tastes.  Even  here,  however, 
there  is  a  natural  order  which  should  be  insisted  on,  so  far 
as  possible,  for  those  who  take  the  whole  course.  "We  must 
begin  with  what  is  most  indispensable.  It  is  all  very  well 
to  say  that  dates  and  dynasties  are  of  only  secondary 
importance,  and  that  it  is  the  history  of  ideas  and  of 
social  progress  that  we  want.  There  can  be  no  history  with- 
out dates  and  dynasties.  They  are  to  the  nobler  parts  of 
history  what  the  skeleton  is  to  the  body.  All  the  beauty  of 
the  bodj*  and  all  its  seeming  energy  are  in  the  external  parts  ; 
but  what  would  they  be  without  the  framework  of  bones  ?  So, 
in  history,  we  can  have  no  sure  and  adequate  comprehension 
of  the  movement  of  the  great  forces  of  society,  without  the 
skeleton  of  the  history  of  events.  Now,  all  events  take 
place  in  two  relations,  —  time  and  place.  The  indispensable 
foundation  of  history  is,  therefore,  a  knowledge  of  chronol- 
ogy,—  of  historical  distances,  —  and  of  historical  geography, 
in  connection  with  the  changes  of  empire.  Territorial  and 
dynastic  history  —  the  study  of  the  successive  empires  and 
dynastic  powers  of  the  world  —  forms  the  first  course, 
which  should  precede  the  others. 

Next  to  the  knowledge  of  empires,  the  most  necessary. 


HISTORICAL   STUDY.  235 

if  the  least  important  branch  of  history,  comes  the  study 
of  the  organized  action  of  mankind.  The  study  of  institu- 
tions, of  their  organic  relation  to  one  another  in  constitu- 
tions of  government,  and  of  the  political  conflicts  that  have 
grown  out  of  these,  forms  naturally  the  second  course. 
After  this,  and  not  till  then,  the  history  of  thought,  of  soci- 
ety, of  ideas,  can  be  profitably  taken  up.  We  have  thus 
three  independent  courses,  affording  an  approximately  com- 
plete survey  of  the  field  of  history,  or  at  least  preparation 
for  further  independent  study.  But  although  this  is  the  nat- 
ural order  of  study,  it  is  not  necessary  to  adhere  to  it  over- 
scrupulously.  The  student  has  already,  in  a  general  way, 
studied  the  dynastic  history  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  England  ; 
has  thus  acquired  a  consecutive,  if  partial,  view  of  ancient 
and  modern  times.  He  is,  therefore,  prepared  to  take  up 
the  special  study  of  the  institutions  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
with  which,  moreover,  he  is  already  somewhat  familiar  from 
his  classical  studies,  without  waiting  for  the  extended  course 
in  dynastic  history.  He  may  even,  without  great  disadvan- 
tage, pass  at  once  to  the  study  of  mediaeval  and  modern 
institutions. 

As  to  method,  I  have  also  experimented  a  great  deal.  For 
college  classes — elective  classes  especially — nothing  seems 
to  me  a  greater  waste  of  force  than  to  spend  the  hour  with 
a  text-book  in  my  hand,  hearing  the  students  repeat  what  is 
in  the  book.  Lecturing,  however  satisfactory  in  the  German 
universities,  I  do  not  find  suited  to  the  wants  of  my  students 
us  a  regular  mode  of  instruction.  For  suggestion  and  for 
review  it  may  be  employed  with  great  advantage ;  and  for 
regular  instruction  in  fields  in  which  there  is  no  suitable  text- 
book, I  am  often  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  it.  But  it 
requires;  to  be  efficacious,  constant  questioning,  thorough 
examinations,  and  occasional  inspection  of  note-books. 


236  GRADES  AND  TOPICS  IN 

In  the  method  which  I  have  at  last  settled  upon,  my  aim 
has  been  to  get  some  of  the  benefits  which  students  in  the 
natural  sciences  acquire  from  work  in  laboratories.  Stu- 
dents of  the  age  and  maturit}7  of  juniors  and  seniors  can  get 
the  greatest  advantage  from  historical  study  by  doing  some 
independent  work  akin  to  laboratory  work.  I  would  not  be 
understood  as  claiming  that  this  is  original  investigation,  in 
any  true  sense  of  the  term.  Laboratory  work  in  chemistry 
or  physics  is  not  original  investigation,  neither  is  the  study 
of  topics  in  history.  The  object,  it  must  be  remembered,  is 
education,  not  historical  investigation  ;  and  the  object  of  the 
educational  process  is  not  merely  to  ascertain  facts,  but  even 
more  :  to  learn  how  to  ascertain  facts.  For  the  student,  as 
a  piece  of  training,  historians  like  Prescott  and  Bancroft 
may  stand  in  the  place  of  original  authorities.  To  gather 
facts  from  them,  really  at  second  hand,  has  for  the  student 
much  of  the  educational  value  of  first-hand  work.  Of  course, 
there  is  a  difference  in  students,  and  the  work  done  by  some 
is  of  a  much  higher  grade  than  that  of  others.  For  the  best 
students  it  easily  and  frequently  passes  into  the  actual  study 
of  authorities  at  first  hand. 

In  studying  by  topics  I  always  desire  that  the  class  should 
have  a  text-book — a  brief  compendium — upon  which  they 
are  liable  to  be  questioned  and  examined,  and  which  will 
serve  at  any  rate  as  a  basis  and  guide  of  work.  My  method 
is  then  to  assign  for  every  day — as  long  beforehand  as  pos- 
sible—  special  topics  to  two  or  three  students,  which  they 
are  to  study  with  as  great  thoroughness  as  possible  in  all  the 
works  to  which  they  have  access,  and  present  orally  in  the 
class,  writing  out  a  syllabus  beforehand  upon  the  blackboard. 
If  they  write  out  the  topic,  and  depend  upon  a  written  paper, 
they  are  much  less  likely  to  be  certain  of  their  ground  and 
independent  in  their  treatment. 


HISTORICAL  STUDY.  237 

The  topical  method  here  described  is  successful  in  propor- 
tion to  the  abundance  and  accessibility  of  books  of  refer- 
ence. In  American  history  it  works  best,  and  here  I  employ 
no  other.  In  the  dynastic  history  of  ancient  and  modern 
times,  it  is  satisfactory  in  most  cases.  I  combine  with  it 
constant  map-drawing,  and  the  preparation  of  a  synchron- 
istic chart.  In  the  more  advanced  courses,  owing  to  the 
deficiency  of  good  books  of  reference,  it  is  necessary  to 
abandon  the  method,  or  combine  it  with  lectures,  recitations, 
and  written  essays.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  assign 
topics  which  cover  the  whole  ground.  It  is  possible,  how- 
ever, to  select  for  this  purpose  all  the  names  and  events  of 
first  importance,  and  it  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  the  topi- 
cal method  that  it  thus  affords  an  opportunity  to  emphasize 
those  facts  of  history  which  most  need  emphasis.  It  is  the 
special  function  of  the  teacher  to  supplement  the  topics,  to 
point  out  their  relative  importance  and  their  connection  with 
one  another,  and  to  help  the  students  in  acquiring  a  com- 
plete and  accurate  general  view. 


PART  I. 
HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

1.  PRIMITIVE  SOCIETY. 

C.  F.  Keary.     The  Dawn  of  History:    An  Introduction  to  Pre- 
historic Study.     L.*    Mozley  &  Smith.    $1.50. 

IE.  G.  Tylor.     Early  History  of  Mankind.     N.Y.     Holt.    $3.50. 
\Id.     Primitive  Culture.     2  v.     N.Y.     Holt.    $7.00. 

lid.     Anthropology.     N.Y.     App.     $2.00. 

Mr.  Tylor's  books  present  the  best  picture  of  primitive  society, 
and  summary  of  the  present  condition  of  the  inquiry. 

I  Sir  John  Lubbock.     Pre-historic  Times.     N.Y.     App.     $5.00. 

Chiefly  devoted  to  archaeology. 
Id.     Origin  of  Civilization.     N.Y.     App.    $2.00. 
%H.  Spencer.     Ceremonial  Institutions.     App.    $1.25. 

%Id.     Political  Institutions.     App.    $1.50. 

These  works  describe  the  evolution  of  governmental  institutions. 

*  In  this  list  only  books  in  the  English  language  are  given,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  of  prime  importance.  Works  written  in  a  foreign  lan- 
guage, whether  in  the  original  or  translated,  are  indicated  by  a  dagger  (t). 
Books  of  especial  importance  are  indicated  by  the  double  dagger  (J). 
Abbreviated  titles  are  given,  except  where  the  full  title  contains  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  book.  In  the  abbreviations,  App.  stands  for  Appleton;  B.,  for 
Boston;  Ber.,  for  Berlin  ;  C.,  for  Cassell ;  C.  &  H.,  for  Chapman  &  Hall ; 
Ch.,  for  Chicago;  E.  &  L.,  for  Estes  &  Lauriat;  Ed.,  for  Edinburgh;  H.,  for 
Harper;  L.,  for  London;  Lap.,  for  Lippincott;  Longm.,  for  Longmans;  Lp., 
for  Leipsic;  L.  &  B.,  for  Little,  Brown,  &  Co.;  L.  &  S.,  for  Lee  &  Shepard; 
M.,  for  Murray;  Macm.,  for  Macmillan;  O.,  for  Osgood;  P.,  for  Paris;  Ph., 
for  Philadelphia  ;  Put.,  for  Putnams  ;  R.,  for  Roberts  ;  Scr.,  for  Scribner  ; 
S.  &  E.,  for  Smith,  Elder,  &  Co.;  W.  &  N.,  for  Williams  &  Norgate.  E.S. 
stands  for  Epochs  Series  (Scribner) ;  and  Soc.,  for  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Christian  Knowledge  (Young). 


240    HISTORICAL   LITERATURE  AND   AUTHORITIES. 

IL.  H.  Morgan.    Ancient  Society.     N.Y.     Holt.    $4.00. 

The  best  analysis  of  the  structure  of  primitive  society,  based 
upon  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  institutions  of  the  North 
American  Indians.  The  later  portions  less  reliable. 

/.  F.  McLennan.     Studies  in  Ancient  History.     L.     Quaritch. 

Controverts  Mr.  Morgan's  theories,  and  finds  the  origin  of  the 
family  in  marriage  by  capture. 

W.  E.  Hearn.     The  Aryan  Household.     L.     Longm.    $6.40. 

The  most  complete  treatise  upon  the  structure  and  development 
of  primitive  society. 

IFustel  de  Coulanges.    The  Ancient  City.f     B.     L.  &  S.    $2.00. 

A  remarkable  book,  affording  the  best  key  to  the  origin  and 
much  of  the  history  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  institutions. 

tSir  H.  S.  Maine.  Ancient  Law :  its  Connection  with  the  Early 
History  of  Society,  and  its  Relation  to  Modern  Ideas.  N.Y. 
Holt.  $3.50. 

Invaluable  as  an  introduction  to  the  history  of  institutions. 

Id.    Village  Communities.     N.Y.     Holt.    $3.50. 

This  work  introduced  the  theory  of  village  communities  to  the 
English  public. 

%Id.     Early  History  of  Institutions.     N.Y.     Holt.    $3.50. 
Devoted  especially  to  the  early  institutions  of  Ireland. 

Id.    Dissertations  upon  Early  Custom  and  Law.     N.Y.     Holt. 
A  collection  of  essays  and  lectures. 

$E.  de  Laveleye.     Primitive  Property.-)-     L.     Macm.    $3.50. 

The  most  complete  elaboration  of  the  theory  of  primitive  com- 
munity of  property. 

Sir  A.  C.  Lyall.     Asiatic  Studies.     M. 

Papers  full  of  valuable  observation  and  study. 

E.  Nasse.    Agricultural  Community  of  the  Middle  Ages.f    W.  &  N. 
The  theory  of  village  communities  applied  to  England. 

D.  W.  Ross.  Early  History  of  Land-holding  among  the  Germans. 
B.  Soule  &  Bugbee. 

Controverts  the  theory  of  village  communities. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND   AUTHORITIES.     241 

John  Fenton.     Early  Hebrew  Life.     L.     Triibner. 

A.  F.  Bandelier.  On  the  Art  of  War  and  Mode  of  Warfare  among 
the  Ancient  Mexicans.  —  On  the  Distribution  and  Tenure  of 
Land,  etc.  —  On  the  Social  Organization  and  Mode  of  Govern- 
ment, etc. 

Three  papers  of  great  value,  reprinted  from  the  reports  of  the 

Peabody  Museum  of  Ethnology  for  1877-8-9. 

/.  /.  Bachofen.    Das  Mutterrecht.f    Stuttgart.    1861. 

A  pioneer  work  ;  treats  of  inheritance  in  the  female  line,  as  an 
institution  of  primitive  society. 

See  also  the  following  articles :  by  E.  Nasse,  in  Cont.  Rev.,  May, 
1872,  upon  Village  Communities ;  by  «/.  F.  McLennan,  in  Fortn. 
Rev.,  1S03,  upon  Kinship  in  Ancient  Greece,  and  in  1869-70, 
upon  Worship  of  Animals  and  Plants  [theory  of  totems] ;  by 
F.  H.  Cushing,  in  the  Atl.  Monthly,  Sept.  and  Oct.,  1882,  upon 
the  Nation  of  the  Willows  [the  Zunis  of  New  Mexico]  ;  by  W. 
F.  Allen,  in  Penn  Monthly,  June,  1880,  upon  the  points  at  issue 
between  Mr.  Morgan  and  Mr.  McLennan. 

Authorities. 

Books  of  travel,  etc.,  containing  graphic  and  accurate  accounts  of  savage 
and  barbarous  society. 

Herbert  Spencer.     Descriptive  Sociology.  —  Div.  1 :     Uncivilized 
Societies ;   Div.  2 :  Ancient  Mexicans,  etc.     8  parts,  each  <$4.00. 
A  classified  collection  of  facts. 

L.  H.  Morgan.  Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity  of  the  Human 
Family.  Vol.  XVII.  (1870)  of  the  Smithsonian  Contributions. 

A  very  extensive  and  remarkable  collection  of  facts. 
Id.     League  of  the  Iroquois.    Rochester.     1851. 

IF.  Parkman.     The  Oregon  Trail.     B.     L.  &  B.    $2.50. 
Perhaps  the  most  vivid  picture  of  Indian  life. 

{David  Livingstone.  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South 
Africa.  H.  $4.50. 


•242    HISTORICAL   LITERATURE   AND   AUTHORITIES. 

H.  M.  Stanley.     Through  the  Dark  Continent.     2  v.     H.    $10.00. 

G.  Schweinfurth.     The  Heart  of  Africa.     2  v.     H.    $8.00. 

J  W.  G.  Palgrave.     A  Year's  Travel  in  Arabia.     Macm.    $2.00. 

J.  A.  McGahan.    Campaigning  on  the  Oxus.     H.    $3.50. 
Contains  an  excellent  account  of  nomadic  life. 

%Lord  Pembroke.     Old  New  Zealand.     L.     Bentley. 

Contains  a  forcible  picture  of  the  evils  worked  by  contact  with 
civilization. 

H.  Rink.     Tales  and  Traditions  of  the  Eskimo.     Ed.     Blackwood. 

%G.  W.  Dasent.     Story  of  Burnt  Njal.     Ed.    Edmonston.    $7.50. 
Presents  a  vivid  picture  of  early  German  society. 

J  Homer's  Iliad,  translated  in  prose  by  Lang,  etc. ;  and  Odyssey,  by 
Butcher  and  Lang.  Each,  $1.50. 

A  portrayal  of  early  Greek  society  and  institutions. 

D.  M.  Wallace.     Russia.     Holt.     $2.00. 

Contains  the  best  account  of  the  Mir,  or  Russian  village  com- 
munity. 

A.  J.  Evans.     Through  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.     Longm. 

Contains  a  description  of  the  Slavonian  family  communities. 

J.  W.  Probyn.     Systems  of  Land  Tenure  in  Various  Countries.    C. 

flfel    TK 

$1.75. 

The  essays  upon  India,  Germany,  and  Russia,  describe  systems 
of  land  community. 

Sir  J.  B.  Phear.  The  Aryan  Village  in  India  and  Ceylon.  Macm. 
$2.25. 

See  also  the  publications  of  the  American  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  the 
Peabody  Museum,  the  American  Archaeological  Institute,  and 
kindred  institutions;  and  the  list  of  books  upon  the  Indians 
of  America. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.    243 

2.  MYTHOLOGY. 

JA  ix  Miiller.    Chips  from  a  German  Workshop.    5  v.     N.Y.    Scr. 

110.00. 

These  essays  laid  the  foundation  for  the  study  of  comparative 
mythology  and  folk-lore. 

%C.  F.  Keary.    Outlines  of  Primitive  Belief.    N.Y.    Scr.    $2.50. 
Especially  of  the  Greeks,  Hindoos,  and  Scandinavians. 

J.  A.  Hartung.     Die  Religion  und  Mythologie  der  Griechen.f    4v. 
Lp.    Engelmann. 

The  first  volume  contains  perhaps  the  best  introduction  to  the 
study  of  mythology. 

Sir  G.  W.  Cox.    Introduction  to  Science  of  Comparative  Mythology 
and  Folk-lore.    Holt.    $2.50. 

%Id.    Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Nations.     Longm.    $4.50. 

A  comparative  view  of  the  Indian,  Greek,  and  German  systems 
of  mythology. 

John  Fiske.    Myths  and  Myth-Makers.     Houghton.    $2.00. 

A  popular  account  of  the  way  in  which  myths  are  formed. 

A.  S.  Murray.    Manual  of  Mythology.     N.Y.     Scr.    $2.25. 
Chiefly  devoted  to  that  of  Greece :  with  illustrations. 

%L.  Preller.    Griechische  Mythologie.f     Ber.    Wp.idma.nn. 

J/rf.     Rbmische  Mythologie.  f     Ber.     Weidmann. 

Preller's  are  the  best  and  most  compendious  treatises. 

\J.  Grimm.     Teutonic  Mythology,  f    2  v.     L.     Bell. 
An  exhaustive  and  invaluable  treatise. 

R.  B.  Anderson.    Norse  Mythology.     Ch.     Griggs.    $2.50. 

D.  G.  Brinton.    Myths  of  the  New  World.     Ph.     Watts.    $2.00. 

Ethnic  Religions. 

C.  P.  Tiele.    History  of  Religion.     Houghton.    $3.00. 
The  best  work  of  a  general  character. 

/.  F.  Clarke.     Ten  Great  Religions.     Houghton.     $3.00. 

A  popular  comparative  view  of  the  principal  ethnic  religions. 


244    HISTORICAL    LITERATURE    AND    AUTHORITIES. 

JHibbert  Lectures :  — 

1878.  Max  Muller.     The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion,  as 

illustrated  by  the  Religions  of  India.     Scr. 

1879.  P.  Le  Page  Renouf.     Id.,  Ancient  Egypt.     Scr. 

1881.  T.  W.  Rhys-  Davids.     Id.,  Buddhism.     Put. 

1882.  A .  Kuenen.    National  Religions  and  Universal  Religions. 

{Non-Christian  Religious  Systems.     Soc. 
Monier  Williams.     Hinduism. 
T.  W.  Rhys-Davids.     Buddhism. 
R.  K.  Douglas.     Confucianism  and  Taouism. 
J.  H.  W.  Stobart.     Islam  and  its  Founders. 
Sir  William  Muir.     The  Goran. 

$S.  Johnson.  Oriental  Religions :  I.India;  II.  China;  III.  Persia, 
lloughtou.  $5.00. 

A.  Barth.     Religions  of  India.     Houghton. 

O.  Keitner.     Buddha  and  his  Doctrines.     L.     Triibner. 

J.  Edkins.     Chinese  Buddhism.     Houghton. 

/.  Legge.     Life  and  Teaching  of  Confucius. 

M.  Haug.    The  Religion  of  the  Parsis.       Houghton.    $4.50. 

\.C.  P.  Tiele.  Comparative  History  of  the  Egyptian  and  Mesopo- 
taiaiau  Religions.  Part  I. :  Egypt.  L. 

See  also  articles  by  Monier  Williams,  on  Indian  Religious  Thought, 
Cont.  Rev.,  1878,  and  on  Religion  of  Zoroaster,  19th  Cent.,  Jan., 
1881;  by  W.  F.  Allen,  on  the  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks, 
N.  Am.  Rev.,  July,  1869 ;  and  the  Ancient  Romans,  July,  1871 ; 
by  Jos.  Darmesteter,  in  Cont.  Rev.,  Oct.,  1879,  on  Supreme  God 
in  Indo-European  Mythology;  by  J.  N.  Hoare,  in  19th  Cent., 
Dec.,  1878,  on  Religion  of  Ancient  Egyptians ;  in  Edin.  Rev., 
Oct.,  1881,  on  the  Koran ;  by  K.  Blind,  in  N.  Am.  Rev.,  Oct., 
1872,  on  the  German  World  of  Gods ;  by  F.  Lenormant,  in  Cont. 
Rev.,  1880,  on  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries ;  by  C.  T.  Newton,  in 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      245 

19th  Cent.,  June,  1878,  on  the  Religion  of  the  Greeks  as  Illus 
trated  by  Inscriptions.  For  the  truest  conception  of  Greek 
mythology :  Ruskin's  Modern  Painters,  Part  IV.,  Chap.  13. 

Authorities. 

Sacred  Books  of  the  East.     11  vols.    Macm. 
The  Elder  Edda.     L.     Triibner. 
The  Younger  Edda.    Ch.    Griggs. 


3.  HISTORY  OF  SOCIETY. 
$H.  Spencer.     The  Study  of  Sociology.     App.    $1.50. 

W.  Bagehot.    Physics  and  Politics.    $1.50. 
Analyzes  the  causes  of  progress. 

%A.  Comte.     The  Positive  Philosophy. f     2v.     App. 

The  second  volume  contains  an  application  of  the  positive  philos- 
ophy to  historical  phenomena. 

F.  Schlegel.     The  Philosophy  of  History,  f 

Id.     Lectures  on  the  History  of  Literature,  Ancient  and  Modern-^ 

These  old  works  are  still  unsurpassed  in  their  field. 
R.  Flint.     The  Philosophy  of  History  in  France  and  Germany. 

Baron  de  Montesquieu.     The  Spirit  of  Laws.f     Cincinnati. 

A  work  of  great  insight,  first  published  in  1748. 
\J.  W.  Draper.    The  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe.    2  v. 

H.    $3.00. 

\H.  T.  Buckle.    Introduction  to  History  of  Civilization  in  England. 
2  v.     App.    $4.00. 

Draper  and  Buckle  write  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  control- 
ling influence  of  physical  causes. 

G.  P.  Marsh.     Man  and  Nature.     Scr.    $2.00. 

Treats  of  the  influence  of  man  and  the  earth  upon  each  other. 
A.  Blanqui.     History  of  Political  Economy  in  Europe. f     $3.00. 

Sir  T.  E.  May.     Democracy  in  Europe.     2  v.     Longm. 

E.  Viollet-le-duc.     The  Habitations  of  Man  in  all  Ages.f    L.    Low 


240      H18TOEICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 


4.  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

W.  Oncken.  Allgemeine  Geschichte  in  Einzeldarstellungen.f  Ber. 
G.  Grote.  300  marks. 

A  series  of  works  by  writers  of  high  authority.  The  following  are 
already  published:  G.  F.  Hertzberg,  Hellas  und  Rom;  Das 
Rb'mische  Kaiserreich.  F.  Dahn,  Urgeschichte  der  Germani- 
schen  und  Romanischen  Volker.  M.  Philippson,  Zeitalter  Lud- 
wigs  XIV.  A.  Stern,  Revolution  in  England.  A.  Bruckner, 
Peter  der  Grosse.  W.  Oncken,  Zeitalter  Friedrichs  des  Grossen. 

E.  A.  Freeman.  General  Sketch  [in  Freeman's  Hist.  Series].  Holt. 
$1.00. 

The  best  brief  outline  of  general  history. 
$ld.     Historical  Geography  of  Europe.    2  v.  [vol.  ii.,  maps].    $12.00. 

An  elaborate  and  accurate  work  ;  the  best  there  is. 
^.Leopold  von  Ranke.     Weltgeschichte.f     3  vols.  already  published. 

A  summary  of  the  best  results  of  scholarship  by  the  greatest 

living  master.     Translation  of  Vol.  I.    H. 

K.  von  Spruner.     Handatlas  der  Geschichte.  f     In  three  parts. 

1.  Atlas  Antiquus. 
.  2.  Europa.     Revised  by  Th.  Menke.     [English  edition  by  W.  & 

N.,  £4  14s.  6rf.] 
3.  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  Australia. 

Altogether  the  best  and  completest  historical  atlas. 

$N.  Bouillet.  Dictionnaire  Universel  d'Histoire  et  de  Geographic. 
P.  Hachette. 

J/rf.     Atlas  Universel  d'Histoire  et  de  Geographic. 

These  works  of  Bouillet  are  the  best  books  of  reference. 


/.  Haydn.     Dictionary  of  Dates.     App. 

The  best  brief  compendium  of  chronology,  revised  to  1883. 

H.  B.  George.     Genealogical  Tables.     Macm.    $3.00. 
The  best  in  English. 

\.S.  Willard.     Synopsis  of  History.     App. 

Chronological  and  genealogical  tables  of  the  highest  m«rit. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      247 

C.  K.  Adams.    Manual  of  Historical  Literature.    H.    $2.50. 
The  best  guide  to  historical  reading. 

W.  F.  Allen.  Reader's  Guide  to  English  History.  B.  Ginn,  Heath, 
&Co. 

With  a  supplement  giving  brief  references  to  the  history  of 
other  countries  and  periods. 

See  also  articles  by  E.  A.  Freeman,  in  Fortn.  Rev.,  May,  1881,  on 
the  Study  of  History ;  by  J.  Gairdner,  in  Cout.  Rev.,  Oct.,  1880, 
on  Sources  of  History. 

Periodicals. 

iHistorische  Zeitschrift.   By  H.  von  Sybel.   Miinchen  (bi-monthly). 
The  oldest  and  leading  historical  periodical. 

JRevue  Historique.   By  G.  Monod  and  G.  Fagniez.^  P.  (bi-monthly). 
Especially  valuable  for  its  survey  of  current  historical  literature. 

Mittheilungen  aus  der  Historischen  Literatur.f  By  F.  Hirsch. 
Ber.  (quarterly). 

Consists  exclusively  of  book  reviews. 

Jahresberichte  der  Geschichtswissenschaft.     Ber. 
An  annual  review  of  historical  literature. 

Das  Historische  Taschenbuch.     Lp. 

An  annual  collection  of  historical  essays. 

The  Antiquary.     Published  by  Elliot  Stock.     L.  (monthly). 

Devoted  to  antiquities  rather  than  history. 
JThe  Magazine  of  American  History.     (Monthly.)    N.Y.    Barnes. 

A  periodical  of  high  excellence. 
The  American  Antiquarian.     By  S.  D.  Peet.     Ch.  (quarterly). 

Devoted  to  the  entire  field  of  antiquities. 

Besides  these,  several  of  the  State  Historical  Societies  publish 
periodicals  or  regular  volumes  of  Transactions. 


248    HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 


5.  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

^Philip  Smith.  A  History  of  the  World.  Ancient  History.  3  v.  App 
$6.00. 

The  best  English  history  of  antiquity. 

A.H.L.  Heeren.  Historical  Researches  into  the  Politics,  Intercourse, 
and  Trade  of  the  Principal  Nations  of  Antiquity,  f    6  v.    Ox. 
An  old  but  valuable  book. 

%G.  Rawlinson.     A  Manual  of  Ancient  History.     H.    $1.25. 

A  careful  and  accurate  compendium,  with  abundant  references 
to  authorities  and  special  treatises. 

P.  V.  N.  Myers.     Outlines  of  Ancient  History.     H.     1882.     $1.75. 

A  good  compendium  for  non-classical  readers. 
E.  A.  Freeman.    Historical  Essays.    Second  Series.    Macm.   $3.50. 

This  series  is  devoted  to  ancient  history. 


/.  /.  Winckelmann.     History  of  Ancient  Art.    2  v.f     O.    $9.00. 

The  starting-point  of  study  in  the  history  of  ancient  art. 
%F.  von  Reber.     History  of  Ancient  Artf     H.     $2.50. 

An  excellent  compendium,  well  illustrated. 

G.  G.  Zerffi.  Manual  of  the  Historical  Development  of  Art.  L. 
Hardwicke. 

%S.  R.  Koehler.  Illustrations  of  the  History  of  Art.  Series  1 : 
Ancient  Architecture,  Sculpture,  etc.  B.  Prang.  1879. 
Series  5  contains  the  History  of  Painting. 

K.  O.  Miiller.     Ancient  Art  and  its  Remains.     L.     Quaritch. 

The  German  edition  is  accompanied  by  two  vols.  of  illustrations. 

W.  C.  Perry.  Popular  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Sculpture.  Longm.  $12.00. 

A.  S.  Murray.    History  of  Ancient  Sculpture.    M. 

James  Fergusson.     History  of  Architecture.     2  v.     M.    $24.00. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      249 

Ancient  Classics  for  Modern  Readers.     Lipp.     $1.00. 

Twenty-eight  small  volumes,  containing  excellent  short  accounts 
of  the  principal  authors. 

Classical  Writers.     Edited  by  /.  JR.  Green.     App.     60  cte. 

A  similar  series,  containing  fewer  treatises,  bat  of  the  highest 
excellence. 

W,  C.  Wilkinson.     Preparatory  Greek  Course  in  English.     N.Y. 
Phillips  &  Hunt 

Especially  adapted  to  non-classical  readers. 


W.  Smith.     Dictionary  of  Antiquities.     M.     $6.00. 

Id.     Dictionary  of  Classical  Biography  and  Mythology.     3  v.     M. 
918.00. 

Id.     Dictionary  of  Classical  Geography.     2  v.     M.    $12.00. 

Id.     Classical  Atlas.     M.     $40.00. 

The  most  complete  works  of  reference.    Smaller  works  are  :  — 

A.  Rich.     Dictionary  of  Antiquities. 
W.  Smith.     Classical  Dictionary.     H. 

E.  Guhl  and  W.  Koner.     The  Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.     L. 
Chatto  &  Windus.    $4.00. 


6.  ORIENTAL  HISTORY. 

\M.  Duncker.     History  of  Antiquity.     6  v.f    L.    Bentley.    $50.00. 

Covers  only  the  oriental  period,  but  is  the  best  compendium  for 
this  period. 

F.  Lenormant  and  E.  Chevallier.     Manual  of  the  Ancient  History 
oftheEast-t     2  v.     L.     Asher.     1869.    $5.50. 

F.  Lenormant.     The  Beginnings  of  History. f     Scr.    $2.50. 


250     HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

G.  Rarolinson.     The  Origin  of  Nations.     Scr.     $1.50. 

\Id.  The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World 
[Chaldsea,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Media,  and  Persia].  Dodd,  Mead, 
&  Co.  $6.00. 

Id.  The  Sixth  Great  Monarchy  [Parthia].  Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co.  $2.00. 
Id.  The  Seventh  Great  Oriental  Monarchy  [Sassanidae].  $4.00. 

Id.     History  of  Ancient  Egypt.     2  v.    B.     Cassino.    $4.00. 

All  Canon  Rawlinson's  works  are  marked  by  learning  and  ability. 
They  are  written  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  absolute  authority 
of  the  Hebrew  scriptures. 

%H.  Brugsch  Bey.     Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs.     2  v.    M.     $12.00. 

The  best  history  of  Egypt,  by  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
Egyptologists. 

JSt'r  J.  G.  Wilkinson.  The  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians.  3  v.  M.  $33.00. 

The  standard  work  upon  the  subject.         v 
%H.  Ebers.     Egypt.     C. 

An  illustrated  work  of  the  highest  excellence. 

IH.  Ewald.     History  of  Israel.     5  v.     Longm.     $26.00. 

By  the  greatest  authority  upon  Hebrew  history. 
H.  H.  Milman.    History  of  the  Jews.   3  v.   N.Y.   Widdleton.   $5.25. 

A  popular  work. 
/.  H.  Allen.     Hebrew  Men  and  Times.     R.     $1.50. 

E.  H.  Palmer.  History  of  the  Jewish  Nation ;  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  present  day.  Soc.  $1.50. 

C.R.Conder.  Life  of  Judas  Maccabeus  [New  Plutarch].  Put.  $1.00. 
$A.  P.  Stanley.  History  of  the  Jewish  Church.  3  v.  Scr.  $7.50. 
/.  Kenrick.  Phoenicia.  L.  Fellowes. 

See  also  series  of  articles  by  R.  Stuart-Poole  in  Cont.  Rev.,  1878-79, 
on  Ancient  Egypt. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.     251 

Authorities. 

Records  of  the  Past.     6  v.     L.     Bagster.    $18.00. 
Ancient  History  from  the  Monuments.     6  v.     Soc.     Each,  75  cts. 
/.  P.  Cory.    Ancient  Fragments.    L.    Reeves. 


7.  HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 

%Geo.  Grote.    History  of  Greece.    12  v.    H.    $18.00. 

The  most  complete  history  ;  from  a  liberal  point  of  view. 
Connop  Thirlwall.     History  of  Greece.     2  v.     H. 

An  excellent  and  scholarly  work. 
\Ernst  Curtius.     History  of  Greece.     5  v.f     Scr.    $10.00. 

The  best  German  history  ;    a  book  of  eloquence  as  well  as 
scholarship. 

Sir  G.  W.  Cox.    General  History  of  Greece.    H.    $1.25. 

The  best  short  history. 
Wm.  Smith.    History  of  Greece.    B.    Ware.    $2.00. 

The  American  edition,  edited  by  Pres.  Felton,  contains  important 
additions,  bringing  it  down  to  the  present  centnry. 

Id.    Smaller  History  of  Greece.    H.    60  cts. 

T.  T.  Timayenis.     A  History  of  Greece  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
the  Present.    2  v.     App.    $3.50. 

Interesting  as  the  work  of  a  native  Greek,  and  covering  the 
period  of  modern  history. 

C.  C.  Felton.   Greece,  Ancient  and  Modern.   2  v.  Houghton.  $5.00. 
The  best  popular  work  on  the  history,  literature,  etc.,  of  Greece. 

E.  A.  Freeman.     History  of  Federal  Government.    Vol.  I.    Macm. 

$7.00. 

This,  the  only  volume  published,  is  chiefly  devoted   to  the 
Achaean  League. 

W.  W.  Lloyd.     The  Age  of  Pericles.    2  v.    M. 
Id.     History  of  Sicily  to  the  Athenian  War.     M. 


252     HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

The  following  belong  to  the  series  of  Epochs  of  ancient  history :  — 

S.  G.  W.  Benjamin.     Troy.     $1.00. 

Sir  G.  W.  Cox.     The  Greeks  and  the  Persians.    $1.00. 

Id.     The  Athenian  Empire.    $1.00. 

C.  Sankey.    The  Spartan  and  Theban  Supremacies.    $  1.00. 

A.  M.  Curteis.    Rise  of  the  Macedonian  Empire.     $1.00. 


C.  Peter.     Chronological  Tables  of  Greek  History.    Macm.    $3.00. 
«/.  P.  Mahqffy.     Social  Life  in  Greece.     Macm. 

W.  A.  Becker.     Charicles.     L.     $3.00. 

A  tale  illustrating  manners  and  customs. 

W.  Mure.     Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece.     5  v.     Longm.    $35.00. 

This  is  the  principal  work  ;  a  good  short  one  is  — 

/.  P.  Mahaffy.    History  of  Classical  Greek  Literature.     H. 


8.  ROMAN  HISTORY. 

\TJi.Mommsen.     History  of  Rome.     4v.f     Scr.     $8.00. 
The  best  history  of  Rome  ;  reaches  B.C.  46. 

W.  Ihne.     History  of  Rome.     5  v.f     Longm.   $30.00. 

Gives  less  attention  than  Mommsen  to  legal  and  economical 
causes ;  is  also  more  favorable  to  the  Carthaginians.  Reaches 
B.C.  78. 

Thos.  Arnold.     History  of  Rome.     App.     $3.00. 

Of  high  literary  merit,  but  based  upon  Niebuhr  in  its  view  of 
Roman  institutions,  and  therefore  largely  superseded  by  later 
researches.  Reaches  B.C.  202. 

Chas.  Merivale.     General  History  of  Rome.     App.    $1.25. 

The  best  short  history  of  Rome,  reaching  to  the  fall  of  the 
western  empire,  AJ>.  476. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.     253 

H.  G.  LiddelL     History  of  Rome.     H.     fl.25. 

Of  a  good  deal  of  literary  merit,  founded  chiefly  upon  Niebuhr. 
Reaches  B.C.  30. 

W.  Smith  and  E.  Lawrence.    Smaller  History  of  Rome.   H.    60  cts. 
An  excellent  sketch,  reaching  A.D.  476. 

A..  Schwegler.     Romische  Geschichte.     2  v.f    Tubingen.     1853-58. 


An  exhaustive  cyclopaedia  of  Roman  history,  indispensable  for 
the  student ;  reaches  B.C.  390.  A  fourth  volume,  by  O.  Clason 
(Ber.,  Calvary),  reaches  B.C.  328. 

T.  H.  Dyer.     The  History  of  the  Kings  of  Rome.    Lip.    $5.00. 

Maintains  the  traditionary  view,  against  Niebuhr.  The  same 
view  is  presented  with  great  learning  and  brilliancy  by 

Fr.  Dor.  Gerlach  and  J.  J.  Bachofen.     Geschichte  der  Rbmer.f 
Basel.     1851.    Vol.  L,  $2.60. 

The  first  volume,  containing  the  history  of  the  kings,  is  the  only 
one  ever  published. 

V.  Duruy.     History  of  Rome.     6  v.f     L.    Kelly  [now  publishing]. 
Magnificently  illustrated  ;  a  work  of  high  merit. 

$.Geo.  Long.     The  Decline  of  the  Roman  Republic.    5  v.    L.     Bell. 
$28.00. 

An  exhaustive  collection  of  facts  from  B.C.  154  to  44,  accom- 
panied with  acute  criticism. 

fCAos.  Merivale.     History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire.     7  v. 
App.    $14.00.     New  edition,  4  v.,  $7.00. 

From  B.C.  60  to  AJ>.  180.  The  best  account  of  the  period  between 
Mommsen  and  Gibbon. 

R.  Congreve.   The  Roman  Empire  of  the  West.   L.    Parker.    $1.75. 
By  an  eminent  positivist. 

JJ.  R.  Seeley.     Roman  Imperialism.     R.     $1.50. 

Three  lectures  on  the  establishment  and  decline  of  the  empire. 

\Edw.  Gibbon.     History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire.     6  v.     Lip.     $12.00. 

The  Students'  Gibbon.     H.    $1.25. 

Gibbon  is  an  indispensable  guide  for  the  twelve  centuries  from 
the  accession  of  Commodus  to  the  fall  of  Constantinople. 


254      HISTORICAL.  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

A.  J.  Mason.     The  Persecutions  of  Diocletian.     L.    Bell.    $3.50. 

An  attempt  to  vindicate  Diocletian. 
J  Thos.  Hodgkin.     Italy  and  her  Invaders.     2  v.    Macm.    $8.00. 

A  history  of  the  Visigoths,  Vandals,  and  Huns. 
C.  Kingsley.     The  Roman  and  the  Teuton.    Macm.     $1.75. 
W.  E.  H.  Lecky.    History  of  European  Morals,  from  Augustus  to 
Charlemagne.     2  v.     App.    $3.00. 


JThe  following  belong  to  the  series  of  Epochs  of  Ancient  History :  — 

William  Ihne.     Early  Rome.     $1.00. 

R.  Bosworth  Smith.    Rome  and  Carthage.    $1.00. 

A.  H.  Beesly.     The  Gracchi,  Marius,  and  Sulla.    $1.00. 

Chas.  Merivale.     The  Roman  Triumvirates.    $1.00. 

W.  W.  Capes.     The  Early  Empire.    $1.00. 

Id.     The  Age  of  the  Antonines. 


IW.  S.  Teuffel.    History  of  Roman  Literature.f    $7.50. 

The  best  German  work.    The  best  English  works  are :  — 
%G.  A.  Simcox.     History  of  Latin  Literature.     2  v.     H. 

JC.  T.  Crutwell.     History  of  Roman  Literature.     Scr.     $2.50. 

An  excellent  short  manual  is 
L.  Schmitz.    History  of  Roman  Literature.    $1.25. 


%Th.  Mommsen  and  J.  Marquardt.  Handbuch  der  Romischen 
Alterthiimer.  7v.f  Lp.  Hirzel.  Vol.  I,  $4.40;  Vol.  H., 
Aleth.  1,  $4.80,  Aleth.  2,  $3.30;  Vol.  HI.,  not  out  yet;  Vol.  IV., 
$3.30;  Vol.  V.,  $4.05;  Vol.  VI.,  $4.05;  Vol.  VII.,  $6.60. 

Mommsen's  partis  Staatsrecht;  Marquardt's,  Staatsverwaltung. 
Neither  is  yet  complete.    This  is  the  greatest  work  on  Roman 
antiquities,  superseding  the  earlier  work  by  Becker  and  Mar- 
quardt (5  v.    Lp.). 
W.  A.  Becker.     GaUus.     $3.00. 

A  treatise  on  antiquities  in  the  form  of  a  tale. 


HISTORICAL,  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      255 

L.  Lange.  Romische  Alterthiimer.  3  v.f  Ber.  Weidmann.  $8.45. 
This  work,  which  is  rather  historical  than  systematic,  reaches 
B.C.  30. 

W.  Ramsay.  Manual  of  Roman  Antiquities.  L.  Griffin.  $3.00. 
Excellent  when  written,  but  now  antiquated  in  many  parts. 

/.  R.  Seeley.     First  Book  of  Livy.     Macm.     $  1.50. 

The  introduction  to  this  work  contains  the  best  discussion  in 
English  of  the  institutions  of  the  period  of  the  kings. 

F.  W.  Newman.  Regal  Rome.  N.Y.  Redfield.  1852.  63  cents. 
Contains  much  interesting  matter. 

R.  F.  Leighton.  History  of  Rome.  N.Y.  Clark  &  Maynard.  $1.44. 
A  school  history,  but  contains  the  most  complete  statement  in 
English  of  the  latest  results  of  scholarship. 

W.  T.  Arnold.     The  Roman  System  of  Provincial  Administration. 
Macm.    $1.75. 


V.  Rydberg.     Roman  Days.    $2.00. 

Art  and  life  under  the  empire. 
Wm.  Forsyth.     Life  of  Cicero.     Scr.    $2.50. 

A  good  work;  even  better  is  that  by 
t Anthony  Trollope.     2  v.     H.     $3.50. 

It  is  distinguished  for  vivid  and  correct  portraiture.    Its  view  is 

favorable  to  Cicero. 

J.  A.  Froude.     Caesar.     Scr.    $2.50. 

Brilliant,  but  not  always  accurate.  It  presents  the  most  eulo- 
gistic view  of  Caesar's  character  and  career.  The  same  view  is 
presented  in  the  Life  of  Julius  Caesar  ascribed  to  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  III.  [2  v.  Scr.] 

E.  S.  Beesly.    Catiline,  Clodius,  and  Tiberius.    L.    C.  &  H.    $2.00. 

Able  and  interesting,  by  a  distinguished  positivist,  in  defence  of 
these  three  characters.  Tiberius  also  finds  a  defender  in 

F.  Huidekoper.    Judaism  in  Rome.     [Note  G.]     N.Y.     Francis. 
$2.25. 

Thos.  De  Quincey.     The  Caesars.     Houghton.     $1.50. 

An  entertaining  sketch. 
Earl  Stanhope.    Life  of  Belisarius.     L.     $3.50. 


256      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

Montesquieu's  Grandeur  and  Decadence  of  the  Romans,  translated 
by  Jehu  Baker.     App.    $2.00. 
An  old  work  of  much  value. 

See  article  by  Goldwin  Smith  in  Cont.  Rev.,  May,  1878,  on  the 
Greatness  of  the  Romans. 


Authorities. 

Translations  of  the  classic  authors  may  be  found  in  Bohn's  Classical 
Library,  republished  by  Harper ;  besides  these,  we  will  mention 

Herodotus,  —  Oriental  history,  and  the  Persian  wars,  —  translated 
by  Geo.  Rawlinson.    4  v.    $10.00. 

Thucydides,  —  Peloponnesian    War,  —  translated    by    B.    Jowett. 
Macm.    $8.00. 

Xenophon,  —  continuation  of  Thucydides,  and  expedition  of  Cyrus 
the  Younger.    $2.00. 

Livy,  —  Roman  history,  —  [to  390]  translated  by  Geo.  Baker.   N.Y. 
Worthington.     $7.50. 
Finely  illustrated. 

Polybius,  —  the  chief  authority  for  the  Second  Punic  War,  —  trans- 
lated by  Hampton. 

Sallust,  —  Jugurthine  War  and  Conspiracy  of  Catiline,  —  translated 
by  A.  W.  Pollard.     Macm.    $1.60. 

Caesar,  —  civil  and  foreign  wars,  from  B.C.  58  to  45.    $2.00. 

Tacitus,  —  the  Roman  empire,  A.D.  14  to  70,  with  some  interrup- 
tions, —  translated  by  Church  and  Brodribb.     Macm.     $2.00. 

Suetonius,  —  lives  of  the  Caesars,  —  translated  by  Thomson.    $1.75. 

Plutarch,  —  biographies,  —  translated  by  A.  H.  Clough.     L.  &  B 

$3.00. 

Josephus,  —  Jewish  wars.    $2.00. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      257 


9.   MEDIAEVAL  AND  MODERN  HISTORY. 

tH.  Hallam.     Middle  Ages.     3  v.     N.Y.    85.25. 

A  sound  and  scholarly  work,  incomplete  in  certain  parts  (e.g., 
the  north  of  Europe),  and  superseded  in  others  by  recent  in- 
vestigations, but  still  indispensable. 

JF.  Guizot.     Lectures  on  the  History  of  Civilization  in  France  and 
in  Europe.    4  v.     App.    $5.60. 

Likewise  indispensable,  and  still  containing  the  best  view  in 
English  of  feudal  society. 

/.  Balmes.  European  Civilization-!  Baltimore.  Murphy.  $3.00. 
A  comparison  of  Protestantism  and  Catholicism  in  their  rela- 
tion to  civilization,  by  a  Catholic  writer. 

F.  Ozanam.     History  of  Civilization  in  the  Fifth  Century,  f     Lip. 
$3.50. 

A  work  of  eloquence  and  spiritual  power. 

C.  /.  Stille.     Studies  in  Mediaeval  History.     Lip.    $2.00. 

An  excellent  course  of  lectures ;  especially  good  in  the  history 
of  civilization,  less  satisfactory  in  that  of  institutions. 

J.4.  M.  Curteis.     History  of  the  Roman  Empire.     Lip.     $1.50. 

From  A.D.  395  to  800;  with  good  maps.  The  best  brief  sketch 
of  this  period. 

IR.  W.  Church.   The  Beginnings  of  the  Middle  Ages.   [E.S.]  $1.00. 

Covers  a  somewhat  later  period;  from  A.D.  500  to  1000. 
P.  Lacroix.  Manners,  Customs,  and  Dress  in  the  Middle  Ages.f  App. 

$12.00. 

H.  The  Arts  in  the  Middle  Ages.f    App.    $12.00. 
Id.  Science  and  Literature  in  the  Middle  Ages.-f  L.  Bickers.  $12.00. 

Finely  illustrated  works,  of  the  highest  value. 
E.  L.  Cults.    Scenes  and  Characters  in  the  Middle  Ages.   L.   Virtue. 

$5.00. 

With  good  illustrations  of  manners,  customs,  etc. 

/.  J.  Sheppard.     The  Fall  of   Rome  and  the  Rise  of  the  New 
Nationalities.     N.Y.    $2.50. 

A  good  manual  for  students. 
^.E.  A.  Freeman.   Historical  Essays.    Series  1  and  3.    Macm.  $3.00. 

Series  1  treats  of  mediaeval  history ;  Series  3,  of  Eastern  Europe. 


258      HISTORICAL  LTTERATTTRE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

V.  Rydberg.     Magic  of  the  Middle  Ages.f     Holt.     $1.75. 

%H.  von  Sybel.     History  and  Literature  of  the  Crusades.f     C.  &  R. 

10s.  Qd. 
J.  F.  Michaud.    History  of  the  Crusades.    4  v.f     N.Y.     Redfield. 


Sir  G.  W.  Cox.     The  Crusades.     [E.S.]    $1.00. 

G.  Z.  Gray.     The  Children's  Crusade.     Houghton.     $1.50. 

Michaud's  is  the  standard  history  of  the  crusades ;  Cox's,  the 
best  short  sketch ;  Sybel' s  work  presents  the  best  results  of 
scholarship. 

C.  Mills.     History  of  Chivalry.    2  v.     Ph.     Carey  &  Lea.    $1.25. 

The  standard  work  upon  the  subject. 
E.  Viollet-le-duc.     Annals  of  a  Fortress.f     B.     $5.00. 

By  a  distinguished  architect  and  historian. 

E.  L.  Cutts.     Constantino.     Soc.     $1.05. 
Id.     Charlemagne.     Soc.     $1.05. 

F.  C.  Woodhouse.    Military  Religious  Orders  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Soc.    $1.05. 

Excellent  books  of  a  popular  character. 

A.  L.  Koeppen.  The  World  in  the  Middle  Ages.  2  v.  App.  $3.00. 
A  thorough  and  accurate  geography  of  the  middle  ages,  with  an 
atlas. 

F.  de  Coulanges.     Institutions  Politiques  de  PAncienne  France. f 
2  v.     P.     Hachette.    $5.25. 

A  brilliant  but  not  always  trustworthy  description  of  political 
society  in  the  beginning  of  the  middle  ages. 


W.  Smyth.    Lectures  upon  Modern  History.     B.    Mussey. 

%T.  Arnold.     Lectures  on  Modern  History.     App.     $1.50. 
These  courses  of  lectures  are  old,  but  valuable. 

T.  H.  Dyer.     History  of  Modern  Europe.     5  v.     Bell.     $22.50. 
The  best  work,  extending  from  1453  to  1871. 

C.  D.  Yonge.     Three  Centuries  of  Modern  History.     App.    $2.00. 
A  popular  and  interesting  sketch. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      259 

James  White.    Eighteen  Christian  Centuries.     App.    $2.00. 

An  entertaining  popular  outline  of  history  from  the  Christian  era. 
JJ..  H.  L.  Heeren.    Manual  of  the  History  of  the  Political  System 
of  Europe  and  its  Colonies,  f     $1.50. 

Id.     Historical  Treatises-!    |5.00. 

Heeren's  writings  are  of  the  highest  excellence. 

E.  J.  Payne.     History  of  European  Colonies.      [Freeman's  Hist 
Series.]     Holt.    $1.10. 

F.  C.  Schlosser.   History  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.f  8  v.  C.  &  H. 


10.  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY. 

\H.  H.  Milman.  The  History  of  Christianity  from  the  Birth  of 
Christ  to  the  Abolition  of  Paganism  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
3  v.  N.Y.  Armstrong.  $5.25. 

J/rf.  History  of  Latin  Christianity.  8  v.  N.Y.  Armstrong.  $14.00. 
The  best  general  history  of  the  church  in  the  middle  ages  ; 
reaching  the  end  of  the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.,  1455. 

J.  C.  L.  Gieseler.  A  Text-book  of  Church  History. f  5v.  H.  $5.25. 
The  standard  complete  history  of  the  church. 

J.  Alzog.  Manual  of  Universal  Church  History. f  3  v.  Cincinnati. 
Clarke.  $15.00. 

From  a  Catholic  point  of  view;  fair  and  learned. 

/.  J.  Dollinger.     The  First  Age  of  Christianity.     2  v.     $6.00. 
Also  by  a  Catholic  of  great  learning  and  reputation. 

E.  Re'nan.     [Hibbert  Lect.,  1880.]     The  Influence  of  the  Institu- 
tions, etc.,  of  Rome  upon  Christianity.     W.  &  N.     $3.50. 

F.  D.  Maurice.     Lectures  on  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  First 
and  Second  Centuries.     Macm.     $3.50. 

J.  H.  Newman.     Historical  Sketches.     3  v.     L.    Pickering. 

Chiefly  connected  with  church  history. 
R.  C.  Trench.    Lectures  on  Mediaeval  Church  History.   Scr. 

A  good  popular  sketch. 


260      HISTORICAL  LITERATUBE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

C.  Hardwick.     A  History  of  the  Christian  Church.     Middle  Ages 
Macm.     $2.25. 

Id.     The  Reformation.     Macm.     $2.25. 

Excellent  compendiums  of  handy  reference. 

A.  R.  Pennington.     Epochs  of  the  Papacy.     L.     Bell.     10s.  6d. 

A  book  of  much  merit;  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Church  of 
England. 

J.  F.  Clarke.     Events  and  Epochs  of  Religious  History.     Osgood. 
$3.00. 

J.H.Allen.    Christian  History  in  its  Three  Great  Periods.    3v.    R. 
$3.75. 

Academic  lectures.      Early  Christianity  ;    the   Middle  Ages ; 
Modern  Phases. 

H.  C.  Lea.     A  History  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy.  Houghton.     $3.75. 
Id.    Studies  in  Church  History  [Temporal  Power ;  Benefit  of  Clergy ; 

Excommunication].     Ph.     Lea.    $2.75. 
Id.     Superstition  and  Force  [Wager  of  Law  and  Battle ;  Ordeal ; 

Torture].     Ph.     Lea.    $2.50. 

Books  of  sound  and  independent  scholarship. 

T.  Greenwood.     Cathedra  Petri.     6  v.     L.     Dickinson  &  Higham. 


A  political  history  of  the  Papacy,  ending  1420. 

M.  Creighton.   The  Papacy  during  the  Reformation.  2v.  Houghton. 
$10.00. 

The  two  volumes  published  extend  from  1378  to  1464. 

Sir  J.  Stephen.    Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography.   Longm.  7s.  Gel. 
A.  F.  Villemain.     Life  of  Gregory  VII.  f     3  v.     Bentley.     26s. 
/.  C.  Morison.     Life  and  Times  of  St.  Bernard.     Macm.     $2.00. 
Baron  Htibner.    Life  and  Times  of  Sixtus  V.f     Longm.     24s. 


The  Fathers  for  English  Readers.     Soc.     10  v.     Each,  75  cents. 
The  Conversion  of  the  West.     Soc.     5  v.     Each,  60  cents. 
Two  series  of  small  works  of  merit. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      261 

The  Reformation  Period. 

G.  P.  Fisher.     History  of  the  Reformation.     Scr.    $3.00. 
An  excellent  work. 

%L.  Hausser.     Period  of  the  Reformation-!     N.Y.     $2.50. 

A  course  of  lectures  of  high  scholarship  and  historic  insight. 

M.  J.  Spalding,  History  of  the  Protestant  Reformation.  Baltimore. 
Murphy.  $3.50. 

By  the  Catholic  archbishop  of  Baltimore.    See  also  his  Miscel- 
lanies.   2  v. 

{F.  Seebohm.    History  of  the  Protestant  Revolution.    [E.S.]    $1.00. 
A  compendium  of  great  accuracy  and  value. 

J.  H.  Merle  D'Aubigne.  History  of  the  Reformation.!  5  v.  N.Y. 
Carter.  $4.50. 

Ultra-Protestant  in  tone. 

%L.  von  Ranke.     History  of  the  Popes.f     3  v.     L.     Bell.     $3.75. 

The  best  history  of  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  from  a  politi- 
cal point  of  view. 

C.  Beard.     [Hibbert  Lect.,  1883.]     The  Reformation  of  the  16th 
Century  in  its  Relation  to  Modem  Thought.    W.  &  N.    10s.  6d. 

J.  H.  Treadwell.     Martin  Luther  and  his  Work.     [New  Plutarch.] 

Put.    $1.00. 
R.  B.  Drummond.    Erasmus,  his  Life  and  Character.    2  v.    S.  &  E. 

D.  Strauss.     Ulrich  von  Hutten.f     L.     Daldy.     10s.  Qd. 
H.  Morley.     Clement  Marot.     2  v.     C.  &  H.     18s. 

K.  Benrath.     Bernardino  Ochino  of  Siena,  f     L.     Nisbet.     9s. 

R.  C.  Christie.    Etienne  Dolet.     Macm.    $5.00. 

These  are  persons  whose  lives  illustrate  some  special  phase  of 
the  Reformation. 

P.  Sarpi.     History  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

Ranked  by  Macaulay  with  Thucydides. 
J.A.Wylie.     History  of  Protestantism.     3  v.     C.     $15.00. 

See  essays  on  Luther  by  Stephen,  Carlyle,  Froude,  and  Mozley ;  also 
his  Table  Talk,  and  Erasmus'  Colloquies.  A  life  of  Luther,  by 
Peter  Bayne,  is  in  preparation ;  also  a  translation  of  Kb'stlin's 
popular  work,  to  be  published  by  Scribner. 


262      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

For  Reference. 

W.  Smith.    Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities.     2  v.     M.    $7.00. 
Id.     Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography.     2  v.     M.     $11.00. 
P.  Schaff.     Religious  Encyclopaedia  [based  on  that  of  Herzog] 
3  v.     N.Y.     Funk  &  Wagnalls. 


11.  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND,  IRELAND,  AND  SCOTLAND. 


David  Hume.     History  of  England.     6  v.     Lip. 

In  elegant  style,  with  strong  Tory  bias ;  is  excellent  in  social 
history,  but  lacks  accurate  scholarship. 

J.  Lingard.     History  of  England.     13  v.    $20.00. 

A  Catholic  work,  able  and  scholarly.    This,  like  Hume,  comes 
down  only  to  1688. 

C.  Knight.     The  Popular  History  of  England.     8  v.     Ph. 

Liberal  in  tone,  with  abundant  illustrations. 
%J.  R.  Green.     History  of  the  English  People.     4  v.     H. 

The  best  history  of  England  ;  its  fault  is  in  disregarding  too 

much  the  chronological  order. 

Id.     A  Short  History  of  the  English  People.     H.    $1.75. 

An  earlier  work  of  similar  character. 

%J.  F.  Bright.    English  History  for  the  Use  of  Public  Schools.    3  v. 
N.Y.     Dutton.     17s. 

An  excellent  work;  especially  good  for  reference.    Both  Bright 

and  Green  have  numerous  maps  and  genealogical  tables. 
/.  S.  Brewer.     The  Student's  Hume.     H.     $1.25. 

More  than  an  abridgment.    The  editor  has  added  accuracy  and 

liberality  of  tone. 

The  Pictorial  History  of  England.     8  v.     £5. 

A  work  of  solid  merit,  with  numerous  illustrations. 
Sir  James  Mackintosh.     History  of  England. 

In  Lardner's  Cyclopaedia. 

Miss   E.   Thompson.     History  of  England.      Holt.      [Freeman's 
Historical  Series.]     80  cents. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      263 

{J.  H.  Burton.  History  of  Scotland.  8  v.  and  index.  Ed.  Blackwood. 

Each,  7s.  6d. 

The  best  history  of  Scotland. 
Miss  M.  Macarthur.     History  of  Scotland.     Holt.      [Freeman's 

Historical  Series.]     80  cents. 

E.  M.  Robertson.     Scotland  under  her  Early  Kings.     2  v.     Ed. 
Edmonston.    36s. 

Reaches  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.    Able  and  scholarly, 
but  confused  in  arrangement. 

W.  F.  Skene.    Celtic  Scotland.    3  v.    Ed.    Edmonston.    Each,  15s. 

The  most  complete  work  upon  Scottish  antiquities. 
\C.  G.  Walpole.     The  Kingdom  of  Ireland.     H.    $1.75 

An  excellent  history  of  Ireland,  with  very  good  maps  ;  reaches 

1800. 

W.  Dolby.     History  of  Ireland.     N.Y.     Virtue.    110.00. 

J.  H.  McCarthy.    Outline  of  Irish  History.     Baltimore.     Murphy. 
75  cents. 


%Mrs.  E.  S.  Armitage.   The  Childhood  of  the  English  Nation.  Put. 
$1.25. 

An  admirable  sketch;  reaches  1199. 

IE.  A.  Freeman.     Old  English  History.     Macm.    $1.50. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  period ;  originally  written  for  the  young. 
Id.     Short  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest.     Macm.    60  cents, 
t/rf.     History  of  the  Norman  Conquest.     5  v.  and  index.     Macm. 
$20.00. 

Mr.  Freeman's  greatest  work,  and  the  best  history  of  the  period. 

Id.     History  of  William  Rufus.    Macm.     $8.00. 
A  continuation  of  the  above. 

A.  Thierry.     History  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  f     2  v.     L.     BelL 
Each,  3s.  6d. 

Brilliant,  but  resting  upon  unsound  theories. 

C.  Elton.     Origins  of  English  History.     L.     Quaritch.     $3.00. 

A  work  of  great  learning  and  research  ;  embracing  the  Celtic 
period  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest. 


264      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

J/.  Rhys.     Celtic  Britain.     Soc.     75  cents. 

By  an  eminent  Celtic  scholar.    It  gives  a  history  of  the  Celtic 
nationalities  of  Britain  through  the  eleventh  century. 

%Grant  Allen.     Anglo-Saxon  Britain.     Soc.     75  cents. 

The  author  opposes  Freeman's  view  of  an  exclusively  Teutonic 
character  of  the  English  nationality. 

%J.  R,  Green.     The  Making  of  England.     H.     $2.50. 

Describes  graphically  and  in  detail  the  events  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
conquest  and  the  Heptarchy. 

/.  M.  Kemble.     The  Saxons  in  England.    2  v.     L.    Quaritch.    24s. 

Old,  but  full  of  valuable  material. 
Thos.  Nicholas.     Pedigree  of  the  English  People.     Longm.     16s. 

Argues  for  a  large  Celtic  element  in  the  English  people. 
E.  Guest.     Origines  Celticae.     2  v.     Macm.     $9.00. 

An  unfinished  work  containing  papers  of  remarkable  merit, 

especially  in  relation  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest. 

/.  M.  Lappenberg.     History  of  England  under  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Kings.     2  v.     L.     Bell.     Each,  3s.  Qd. 

Id.     History  of  England  under  the  Norman  Kings.     15s. 

Scholarly  works,  but  partly  superseded  by  later  writers. 

W.  Longman.    Lectures  on  the  Early  History  of  England.    Longm. 

15s. 

C.  H.  Pearson.     England  during  the  Early  and  Middle  Ages.    2  v. 
L.     Bell.    14s. 

Reaches  death  of  Edward  I.;  of  great  value  in  political  and 
constitutional  history. 
Id.     Historical  Maps  of  England.     L.     Bell.     £1  Us.  6d. 

Illustrates  especially  the  social  and  political  condition  of  the 
middle  ages.    Contains  material  not  to  be  found  elsewhere. 

W.  H.  Blaauw.     The  Barons'  War.     L.     Bell.     10s.  Qd. 

An  excellent  monograph  on  the  times  of  Montfort. 
Greatest  of  all  the  Plantagenets.     L.     Bentley.     12s. 

A  history  of  Edward  I.;  very  eulogistic,  but  on  the  whole  sound, 
f  W.  Longman.    History  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  Edward  III.    2  v. 
Longm.     28s. 

The  most  important  work  for  the  history  of  England  in  the 

fourteenth  century. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      265 

fC.  H.  Pearson.     English  History  in  the  Fourteenth  Century.     L. 
Rivingtons.     3s.  6e?. 

An  excellent  short  history. 

G.  M.  Towle.     History  of  Henry  V.     App.    $2.50. 

Miss  C.  A.  Hoisted.    Richard  III.     Ph.     Carey. 
An  attempt  to  vindicate  his  character. 

Jas.  Gairdner.     Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  the  Third.     Longm. 
10s.  Qd. 

Sustains  the  traditionary  view. 

J/.  A.  Froude.    History  of  England  from  the  Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the 
Death  of  Elizabeth.     12  v.     Scr.    $18.00. 

Reaches  only  1688.    A  fascinating  narration,  friendly  to  Henry 
VIII.;  deficient  in  judicial  qualities. 

Miss  Lucy  Aikin.     Memoirs  of  the   Court  of   Queen  Elizabeth. 
Longm.     3s.  Qd. 

An  old  but  valuable  book. 


%L.  von  Ranke.     History  of  England.f     6  v.     Macm. 

A  work  of  the  highest  value  and  importance ;  embraces  the 
sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries. 

JS.  R.  Gardiner.  History  of  England:  1.  From  the  accession  of 
James  I.  to  the  disgrace  of  Coke,  2  vols. ;  2.  The  Spanish 
marriage ;  3.  Under  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  and  Charles  L, 
2  vols. ;  4.  Personal  government  of  Charles  I.,  2  vols. ;  5.  Fall 
of  the  Monarchy  of  Charles  I.,  2  vols.  Longm.  Each,  12s. 

Mr.  Gardiner  is  the  highest  authority  upon  this  period.    A  new 
and  cheaper  edition  of  the  combined  work  is  now  publishing. 

Earl  of  Clarendon.     History  of  the  Rebellion.     6  v.     Ox.     £1  2s. 
The  author,  as  Sir  Edward  Hyde,  was  a  leading  actor  in  the 
events. 

%B.  M.  Cordery  and  J.  S.  Phillpotts.  King  and  Commonwealth. 
Ph.  Porter  &  Coates.  $1.75. 

An  excellent  sketch  ;  from  1603  to  1660. 

F.  Guizot.  1.  History  of  the  English  Revolution  of  1640 ; 
2.  England  under  Oliver  Cromwell,  2  v. ;  3.  Under  Richard 
Cromwell,  2  v. ;  4.  History  of  Monk.f  L.  Per  vol.,  3s.  6d. 


266      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

A.  Bisset.     History  of  the  Struggle  for  Parliamentary  Government 

in  England.     2  v.     24s. 

Id.  History  of  the  Commonwealth  of  England  from  the  Death  of 
Charles  I.  to  the  Expulsion  of  the  Long  Parliament  by  Crom- 
well. 2  v.  80s. 

An  able  exposition  of  the  parliamentary  side. 

/.  Forster.   The  Arrest  of  the  Five  Members  by  Charles  I.   M.   12*. 
Id.     The  Grand  Remonstrance.     M.     12s. 

$F.  von  Raumer.    The  Political  History  of  England  during  the  16th, 
17th,  and  18th  Centuries.     2  v.f     £1  10s. 
By  a  distinguished  German  historian. 
IT.  B.  Macaulay.     History  of  England.     5  v.     H.    $2.50. 

Strongly  Whig ;  a  brilliant  work ;  unfinished ;  covers  the  reigns 
of  James  II.  and  William  HI.,  with  a  general  sketch  of  that  of 
Charles  H. 

%Sir  James  Mackintosh.     History  of  the  Revolution  of  1688. 

An  able  work;  also  Whig.    Unfinished. 
C.  J.  Fox.    History  of  James  H.     Scr.    $1.25. 

J.  H.  Burton.  History  of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne.  3  v.  Scr. 
$13.50. 

Whig ;  by  the  author  of  the  history  of  Scotland. 

Earl  Stanhope.   History  of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne.  2  v.   M.    10s. 
Id.    History  of  England  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  Peace  of 
Versailles  [1713  to  1783].     7  v.     M. 

These  two  works  give  the  history  of  the  eighteenth  century  from 
a  Tory  point  of  view. 

f  W.  E.  H.  Lecky.  History  of  England  in  the  18th  Century.  4  v. 
App.  $9.00. 

Not  yet  finished ;  from  a  Whig  point  of  view. 
/.  Ashton.     Social  Life  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne.     Scr.     $9.00. 

Graphic  and  accurate. 
J.  A.  Froude.   The  English  in  Ireland  in  the  18th  Century.   3  v.  Scr. 

$3.00. 

Written  with  a  strong  English  bias. 

/.  Adolphus.  A  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  George 
IH.  to  1803.  7  v.  Each,  14s. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      267 

W.  Massey.    A  History  of  England  during  the  Reign  of  George  the 
Third.    4  v.     Each,  6s. 

Massey  is  Whig  ;  Adolphus,  Tory. 

Miss  H.  Martineau.     History  of  the  Peace   [to  1854].    4  v.     B. 
Walker.    $10.00. 

S.  Walpole.     History  of  England  from  the  Conclusion  of  the  Great 
War  in  1815  to  1841.     3  v.     Longm.     £2  14s. 

W.  N.  Molesworth.     History  of  England  from  1830  to  1874.     3  v. 
C.  &H. 


%J.  McCarthy.     History  of  Our  Own  Times.     2  v.     H.    $2.50. 
//.  M.  Hozier.     Invasions  of  England.     2  v.    Macm.    $8.00. 

$S.  R.  Gardiner.    Introduction  to  English  History.     [In  English 
History  for  Students.]     N.Y.     Holt.     80  cents. 

R.  Pauli.     Pictures  of  Old  England,  t     Macm.     6s. 
Belonging  to  mediaeval  history. 

Miss  C.  M.  Yonge.    Cameos  from  English  History.    Macm.    $5.00. 
Four  series,  covering  mediaeval  history. 

J.  Gairdner  and  J.  Spedding.     Studies  in  English  History.     Ed. 
Douglas.     12s. 

Belonging  to  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

A.  C.  Etcald.     Stories  from  the  State  Papers.     Houghton.    $3.00. 
Belonging  to  the  same  period. 

T.  B.  Macaulay.     Essays.     4  v.     Houghton.    $5.00. 

Devoted  chiefly  to  modern  English  history. 
/.  S.  Brewer.     English  Studies.    M.     14s. 

$J.  E.  T.  Rogers.    History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices.    4  v.    Macm. 
$23.00. 

Covers  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries. 

F.  Seebohm.     The  English  Village  Community.     Longm. 

W.  Cunningham.     Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce.    C. 

$3.00. 
C.  Hole.     Genealogical  Stemma  of  the  Kings  of  England  and 

France.    Macm.    Is. 


268      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

^Epochs  of  Modern  History.     Scr. 

W.  Stubbs.     The  Early  Plantagenets.    $1.00. 

W.  Warburton.     Edward  III.     $1.00. 

/.  Gairdner.    The  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York.    $1.00. 

M.  Creighton.     The  Age  of  Elizabeth.     $1.00. 

S.  R.  Gardiner.     The  Puritan  Revolution.     $1.00. 

E.  Hale.     The  FaU  of  the  Stuarts.     $1.00. 

E.  E.  Morris.     The  Age  of  Anne.     $1.00. 

J.  McCarthy.     Epoch  of  Reform.     1830-1850.     $1.00. 

Epochs  of  English  History.     E.  &  L.     50  cents  each. 

F.  York-Powell.     Early  England  [to  1066]. 

L.  Creighton.     England  a  Continental  Power  [to  1066]. 

J.  Rowley.     The  Rise  of  the  People  and  the  Growth  of  Parliament 

[to  1485]. 
M.  Creighton.     The  Tudors  and  the  Reformation  [to  1603]. 

B.  M.  Gardiner.     The  Struggle  against  Absolute  Monarchy  [to 

1688]. 

/.  Rowley.     The  Settlement  of  the  Constitution  [to  1778]. 
O.  W.   Tancock.     England  during  the  American  and  European 

Wars  [to  1820]. 
T.  Arnold.     Modern  England  [to  1875]. 

Biographies. 

J  Alfred  the  Great.     By  R.  Pauli.}     Scr.     $2.00. 
Id.     By  Thomas  Hughes.     [Sunday  Library.]     Macm.     $1.75. 
St.  Anselm.    By  R.  W.  Church.    [Sunday  Library.]    Macm.    $1.75. 
Id.     By  If.  Rule.     [Catholic.]     2  v.     L.     Paul.     32s. 
Becket.     Articles  by  J.  A.  Froude,  Nineteenth  Century,  1877. 
Id.     By  E.  A.  Freeman  [in  reply;   more   favorable],  Cont.  Rev., 

1878. 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion.     By  G.  P.  R.  James.     2  v.     Scr.     $2.80. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      269 

{Simon  de  Montfort.     By  R.  Pauli.]     L.     Triibner.    6s. 

Id.     By  G.  W.  Prothero.    [More  a  history  than  biography.]    Longm. 

9s. 

{Wyclif .     By  G.  LechlerJ    2  v.     L.     Paul.    21s. 
Lives  of  English  Popular  Leaders.     By  C.  E.  Maurice.     1.  Stephen 

Langton  ;   2.  Tyler,  Ball,  Oldcastle.     L.     King.     Each,  7s.  Qd. 
Historical  Gleanings.     By  /.  E.   T.  Rogers.     1.  Walpole,  Adam 

Smith ;   2.  Wyclif ,  Laud,  Wilkes,  Home  Tooke.     Macm.     1st, 

$1.50;   2d,  |1.75. 
Whittington.     By  W.  Besant  and  /.  Rice.     [New  Plutarch.]     Put. 

11.00. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh.     By  E.  Edwards.    2  v.     Macm.    $9.00 
{Bacon.     Ey  /.  Spedding.    2  v.     Houghton.    $5.00. 

For  the  Period  of  the  English  Revolution. 
Straff ord.     By  Miss  E.  Cooper.    2  v.     L.     Tinsley.     30s. 
Eliot.     By  /.  Forster.    2  v.     C.  &  H.     14s. 
{Cromwell.     By  Thos.  Carlyle.    [Letters  and  Speeches.]    5  v.    Scr. 

$18.00. 

{Id.     EyJ.  A.  Picton.     C.     $2.50. 

Id.     By  Paxton  Hood.     N.Y.     Funk  &  Wagnalls.    $1.00. 
/.  B.  Mozley.   Essays.    [Strafford,  Laud,  Cromwell.]   2  v.    L.    24s. 
Three  English  Statesmen.     By  G.  Smith.     [Pym,  Cromwell.]     H. 

$1.50. 

Statesmen  of  the  Commonwealth.     By  J.  Forster.    $2.25. 
Chief  Actors  in  the  Puritan  Revolution,    By  P.  Bayne.  L.  Clarke. 

12s. 

{Milton.     By  D.  Masson.     6  v.     Macm.     $34.00. 
Contains  a  minute  history  of  the  times. 


W.  Carstares.     By  R.  H.  Story.    Macm.    $3.00. 

A  prominent  actor  in  the  Scotch  union. 
Marlborough.    By  W.  Coxe.    3  v.    L.    Bell.    Each,  3s.  6d. 


270      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

Sir  R.  Walpole.     By  A.  C.  Ewald.     C.  &  H.     18s. 

C.  E.  Stuart.     By  A.  C.  Ewald.     2  v.     C.  &  H.     £1  18s. 

Lord  Shelburne.     By  Lord  E.  Fitzmaurice.     3  v.     Macm.     16s. 

JC.  J.  Fox.     By  G.  0.  Trevelyan.     H.     $2.50. 

{William  Pitt.     By  Earl  Stanhope.     H.     $2.50. 

Id.     By  Goldwin  Smith.     [Three  English  Statesmen.]     H.     $1.50. 


Lord  Campbell.     Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices.     4  v.    L.  &  B.   $7.00. 

Id.     Lives  of  the  Chancellors.     10  v.     L.  &  B.     $17.50. 

Mrs.  A .  Strickland.    Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England.     6  v.    Lip. 

$12.00. 
A.  C.  Ewald.  Representative  Statesmen.  [ Straff ord  to  Palmerston.] 

2  v.     C.  &  H.     £1  4s. 

C.  A.  Sainte-Beuve.     English  Portraits-!     Holt.     $2.00. 

D.  O.  Maddyn.     Chiefs  of  Parties.     [Fox,  Pitt,  etc.]     21s. 

History  of  Religion. 

$R.  W.  Dixon.     History  of  the  Church  of  England.     2  v.     Rout- 
ledge.     Each,  16s. 

The  most  thorough  and  important  work ;  not  yet  completed. 
$J.  H.  Blunt.     The  Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England.     2  v. 
N.Y.     Young.    $8.50. 

The  best  complete  history;  extends  from  1514  to  1662.   From  the 
point  of  view  of  the  Church  of  England. 
/.  J.  Blunt.   Sketch  of  the  Reformation  in  England.  Young.   $1.50. 

An  excellent  short  sketch. 

Cunningham  Geikie.     The   English  Reformation:    How  it  came 
about,  and  why  we  should  uphold  it.     App.    $2.00. 

A  popular  and  rather  one-sided  work. 

W.  Cobbett.    History  of  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  England 
and  Ireland.     N.Y.     Sadlier.    75  cents. 

A  violent  attack  upon  the  English  Reformation,  by  a  nominal 
Protestant.    For  the  Catholic  view,  see  Lingard  and  Spalding. 
F.  Seebohm.     The  Oxford  Reformers.     Longm.     14s. 
Diocesan  Histories  [Canterbury,  Durham,  etc.].     Soc. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      271 

Constitutional  History. 
%  W.  Stulibs.  Constitutional  History  of  England.   3  v.  Macm.  $7.80. 

$H.  Hallam.    Constitutional  History  of  England.   3  v.   N.Y.   Arm- 
strong.    $5.25. 

J  T.  E.  May.    Constitutional  History  of  England.    2  v.   N.Y.   Arm- 
strong.    $2.50. 

These  three  works  form  a  connected  series,  Hallam  beginning 
1485,  where  Stubbs  ends,  and  ending  1760,  where  May  begins. 

Sheldon  Amos.     Fifty  Years  of  the  English  Constitution.     L.  &  B. 

T.  P.  Taswell-Langmead.  Constitutional  History  of  England.  $7.50. 

The  best  compendium  of  the  subject. 
P.  V.  Smith.     History  of  English  Institutions.     Lip.     $1.50. 

A  good  short  work,  with  a  peculiar  arrangement. 
E.  A.  Freeman.    Growth  of  the  English  Constitution.  Macm.  $2.00. 

H.  Adams  [and  others].     Essays  in  Anglo-Saxon  Law.     L.  &  B. 

$4.00. 
M.  M.  Bigelow.  History  of  Anglo-Norman  Procedure.  L.  &  B. 

$5.00. 
Sir  Jos.  Stephen.  History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  England.  3  v. 

Macm. 


See  also  the  following  articles :  by  J.  E.  T.  Rogers,  on  The  Black 
Death,  Fortn.  Rev.,  1866  ;  the  Peasants'  War,  id. ;  History  of 
Rent  in  England,  Cont.  Rev.,  April,  1880 ;  by  F.  Seebohm,  on 
The  Black  Death,  Fortn.  Rev.,  1865-66 ;  by  Grant  Allen,  Are  we 
English?  in  Fortn.  Rev.,  Oct.,  1880  [presenting  Celtic  argu- 
ment] ;  by  F.  Harrison,  on  Law  of  Treason,  in  Fortn.  Rev., 
Sept.,  1882 ;  by  Goldwin  Smith,  on  the  Greatness  of  England,  in 
Cont.  Rev.,  Dec.,  1878;  by  F.  Seebohm,  Historical  Claims  of 
Tenant  Rights,  in  19th  Cent.,  Jan.,  1881 ;  also  on  Land  Tenures 
in  England  and  in  Ireland,  in  Fort.  Rev.,  1870 ;  by  R.  D.  Osborn, 
Another  Side  of  a  Popular  Story  [India],  in  Fort.  Rev.,  Aug., 
1882. 


272      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

Authorities. 

f/.  Bass  Mullinger.   Authorities  [in  English  History  for  Students]. 
N.Y.     Holt.    $1.80. 

A  compendious  view  of  the  principal  authorities. 

•\.C.  K.  Adams.     Questions  and  Notes  on  English  Constitutional 
History.     Ann  Arbor.     Sheehan. 

A  complete  and  accurate  guide  to  the  authorities.  A  less  full 
guide  will  be  found  in  Prof.  Short's  Reference  Lists,  referred  to 
elsewhere. 

Jas.  Gairdner.    Early  Chroniclers  of  Europe.    England.   Soc.  $  1.20. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  English  chronicles.  Translations 
of  most  of  the  chronicles  will  be  found  in  Bohn's  Library.  Bell. 

Froissart's  Chronicles  [fourteenth  century] .    N.Y.    Leavitt  &  Allen. 
$12.00. 

J.  E.  T.  Rogers.     Loci  e  libro  veritatis.     Macm.    $2.75. 

Belongs  to  the  fifteenth  century. 
Id.     The  Paston  Letters.     4  v.     L.     Arber. 

A  collection  of  family  letters,  of  the  time  of  the  War  of  the 

Roses. 

D'Ewes'  Autobiography  and  Correspondence.     2  v.     L.     Bentley. 

£1  8s. 

The  Fairfax  Correspondence.     4  v.     L.     Bentley.     £3. 
S.  Pepys.     Diary  and  Correspondence.     Scr.     $2.00. 

/.  Evelyn.     Diary  and  Correspondence.     Scr.     $1.75. 

These  two  works  present  a  vivid  picture  of  society  in  the  last 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

H.  Walpole.     Letters.     9  v.     Scr.     $33.75. 

Full  of  information  for  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Cobbelt's  Parliamentary  History,  continued   in  Hansard's  Parlia- 
mentary Debates. 

Rymer's  Foedera  [collection  of  treaties]. 
The  publications  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls. 
The  publications  of  the  Camden  Society,  and  similar  societies. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      273 

12.   HISTORY  OF  FRANCE. 

tF.  Guizot.     History  of  France.f     8  v.     $40.00. 

Handsomely  illustrated.    The  best  large  history  of  France  in 
English. 

\G.  W.  Kitchin.     History  of  France.     3  v.     Macm.    $7.80. 

The  best  English  work. 
H.  W.  Jervis.     Student's  History  of  France.     H.     $1.25. 

An  excellent  small  work,  with  instructive  illustrations. 
J.  Michelet.     History  of  France.     2  v.f     App.     $4.00. 

Very  learned,  and  very  brilliant,  but  too  abounding  in  theory. 
F.  Guizot  and  G.  Masson.     Concise  History  of  France,  f     E.  &  L. 
$3.00. 

tP.  Lacombe.     The  Growth  of  a  People.f     Holt.    $1.00. 

An  admirable  work,  descriptive  of  the  development  of  the  nation. 
Parke  Godwin.     History  of  France.     Vol.  T.     H.     $3.00. 

An  excellent  history  of  the  period  before  Charlemagne.    No 

other  volumes  were  published. 

//.  Martin.     History  of  France  (during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XIV. 

and  Louis  XV.).     3  v.f     B.     E.  &  L.     $16.50. 

Martin's  is  considered  the  best  history  of  France. 
Sir  Jos.  Stephen.    Lectures  on  the  History  of  France.    H.     $3.00. 

An  admirable  commentary  upon  French  history. 
Miss  C.  M.  Yonge.     History  of  France.     [Freeman's  Hist.  Series.] 

Holt.     80  cents. 

F.  Guizot.     St.  Louis  and  Calvin.     [Sunday  Library.]    Macm. 
D.  F.  Jamison.     Life  and  Times  of  Bertrand  du  Guesclin.     2  v. 

Lip.     $14.00. 

Janet  Tuckey.     Joan  of  Arc.     Put.     [New  Plutarch.]     $1.00. 
Harriet  Parr.     Life  and  Deatli  of  Jeanne  d'Arc.    2  v.    S.  &  E.   6s. 
T.Willert.     The  Reign  of  Louis  the  Eleventh.     Put.     $1.50. 
$H.  M.  Baird.     History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots.     2  v.     Scr. 

$5.00. 

The  best  history  of  the  subject. 

W.  Besant.    Coligny  and  the  Failure  of  the  French  Reformation. 
TNew  Plutarch.]     Put. 


274     HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

Due  d'Aumale.  History  of  the  Princes  of  the  House  of  Conde.f  2  v. 

L.     Bentley.    30s. 
L.  Ranke.     Civil  Wars  and  Monarchy  in  France,  f     H.    $1.50. 

Lady  Jackson.     The  Old  Regime.     Holt.     $2.25. 

A  vivid  picture  of  society  under  Louis  XV. 
Due  de  Broglie.    The  King's  Secret  (Louis  XV.).f   2  v.    C.   $5.00. 

Has  special  reference  to  Polish  affairs. 
G.  Masson.     Early  Chroniclers  of  Europe.     France.     Soc.     $1.20. 

Memoirs  of  Commines  (Louis  XI.),  Sully  (Henry  IV.),  and  others. 

Revolutionary  Period,  etc. 

A.  Young.     Travels  in  France  during  the  Years  1787-89.     2  v. 

The  best  contemporary  picture  of  the  condition  of  France  before 
the  Revolution. 

A.  de  Tocqueville.     The  Ancient  Rdgime.f     H.     $1.50. 

An  analysis  of  the  political  condition  of  France  at  the  same  time. 
C.  D.  Yonge.     Life  of  Marie  Antoinette.     H.     $2.50. 

A  popular  work. 
H.  Vizetelly.     Story  of  the  Diamond  Necklace.     Scr.    $2.25. 

A  vivid  picture  of  society  under  the  Old  Regime.     See  also 

Carlyle's  essay  upon  the  same  subject. 

C.  K.  Adams.    Democracy  and  Monarchy  in  France.    Holt.    $2.50. 

An  excellent  sketch  of  recent  French  history. 
H.  A.  Taine.     The  Ancient  Regime.f     Holt.     $2.50. 
Id.     The  French  Revolution.     2  v.f     Holt.    $5.00. 

Not  so  much  history  as  commentary  ;  very  unfavorable  to  the 

revolutionists. 

JH.  V.  Sybel.     History  of  the  French  Revolution.    4  v.f     M.    48s. 

The  best  and  most  important  history. 
T.  Carlyle.     History  of  the  French  Revolution.     3  v.     Scr.    $2.40. 

Remarkable  for  graphic  power. 
Edmund  Burke.     Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution. 

A  bitter  attack  upon  the  revolution  while  still  in  progress ; 

replied  to  by  — 
Sir  Jos.  Mackintosh.    Vindiciae  Gallicae. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      275 

A.  Thiers.     The  French  Revolution.!     4  v.     App.    $8.00. 

Id.     The  Consulate  and  Empire,  f     5  v.     Claxton.    $12.50. 

Thiers'  works  are  written  from  an  intensely  French  point  of 
view.    His  excessive  laudation  may  be  balanced  by  — 

Sir  A.  Alison.     History  of  Europe  from  1789  to  1815.     8  v.     H. 

$16.00. 

Strongly  Tory. 

fP.  Lanfrey.    History  of  Napoleon  I.     4  v.f     Macm.    $12.50. 

An  incomplete  work.   Impartial  in  tone,  but  severe  in  judgment. 
See  also  Channing's  article  on  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

W.  Hazlitt.     Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.     3  v.    Lip.    $4.50. 

Perhaps  the  best  English  work  favorable  to  Napoleon. 
H.  Van  Laun.   The  French  Revolutionary  Epoch.   2v.  App.  $3.50. 

Comes  down  to  1870,  but  is  much  fullest  in  the  earlier  parts. 
C.  A.  Fyffe.     History  of  Europe  (beginning  1879).     2  v.     Holt. 
Vol.  I.,  $2.50. 

%Mrs.  B.  M.  Gardiner.   French  Revolution.   [E.S.]   E.  &  L.  $1.00. 

Presents  the  results  of  the  latest  scholarship. 

W.  0.  Morris.     The  French  Revolution  and  First  Empire.    [E.S.] 
Scr.    $1.00. 

Valuable  for  an  admirable  bibliography  by  Hon.  A.  D.  White. 

/.  Wilson.     Studies  of  Modern  Mind  and  Character.   Longm.   20s. 
Contains  some  excellent  essays  on  French  revolutionary  history. 
W.  F.  P.  Napier.     History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula.    5  v.    N.Y. 
Armstrong.     $7.50. 

Earl  Stanhope.     The  French  Retreat  from  Moscow.     M.    7s.  6rf. 

This  volume  contains  other  valuable  historical  essays. 
C.  Adams.     Great  Campaigns  [1796-1820].     Ed.     Blackwood.    6& 
C.  C.  Chesney.  Waterloo  Lectures.     Longm.     10s.  Qd. 
Dorsey  Gardner.     Quatre-Bras,  Ligny,  and  Waterloo.     Houghton. 

$5.00. 

The  best  popular  history  of  this  campaign. 

Louis  Blanc.     History  of  Ten  Years.     1830-40.    L.    £1  6s. 

By  a  radical  republican. 
A.  de  Lamartine.     History  of  the  Revolution  of  1848.     Scr.    $1.40. 

Lamartine  was  at  the  head  of  the  provisional  government. 


276     HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

Memoirs  of  Mad.  de  Remusat.f     (1802-8.)     App.     $2.00. 

A  graphic  picture  of  the  court  of  Napoleon,  by  one  of  Josephine's 
maids  of  honor. 

Correspondence  of  Prince  Talleyrand  and  Louis  XVIII.  (1814-15.) 
Scr.    $1.00. 

Especially  in  relation  to  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 


13.  SPECIAL  HISTORIES. 

JThe  following  series  of  works   (Lip.)  form  a  connecting  link 
between  mediaeval  and  modern  history :  — 

/.  F.  Kirk.     History  of  Charles  the  Bold.     3  T.     Lip.     $9.00. 

W.  H.  Prescott.  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  3  v.  Lip.  $4.50. 

W.  Robertson.     History  of  Charles  V.     3  v.     [Edited  by  Prescott.] 

$4.50. 
W.  H.  Prescott.     History  of  Philip  II.     3  v.     [Unfinished.]   $4.50. 

J  The  following  works  (H.)  form  a  good  continuation  :  — 

J.  L.  Motley.    Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.     3  v.    H.     $6.00. 
Id.     History  of  the  United  Netherlands.     4  v.     H.    $8.00. 
Id.    John  of  Olden-Barneveldt.    2  v.     H.    $4.00. 


J.  Van  Praet.     Essays  on  the  Political  History  of  the  15th,  16th, 
and  17th  Centuries.     L.     Bentley. 

W.  Menzel.    History  of  Germany,  f     3  v.     L.     Bell.    $4.20. 

The  best  large  work  in  English. 

J.  Sime.   History  of  Germany.   [Freeman's  Hist.  Series.]   80  cents. 
Bayard  Taylor.     History  of  Germany.     H.     $1.75. 

C.  T.  Lewis.     History  of  Germany.     H.     $1.50. 

Both  these  short  histories  are  based  upon  that  of  Mtiller. 
t  W.  Coxe.    History  of  House  of  Austria.     3  v.     Bohn. 

A  book  of  great  accuracy  and  value. 
T.  L.  Kington-Oliphant.     History  of  Frederic  II.     2  v.     Macm. 

A  valuable  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  thirteenth  century. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      277 

T.  Carlyle.     History  of  Frederick  the  Great.     6  v.     H.     $7.50. 

A  work  of  great  industry,  but  in  Carlyle's  worst  style,  and 
unduly  laudatory. 

Due  de  Broglie.    Frederic  the  Great  and  Maria  Theresa,  f   L.   Low. 

30s. 

In  the  time  of  the  First  Silesian  War,  1740-42. 


W.  Spalding.   Hist,  of  Italy  and  the  Italian  Islands.   3  v.   H.  $2.25. 

A  good  compendium;  more  recent  is  — 
W.  Hunt.   History  of  Italy.    [Freeman's  Hist.  Series.]   Holt.   80  cts. 

/.  C.  L.  de  Sismondi.     History  of  the  Italian  Republics.    H.   75  cts. 
An  abridgment  of  the  author's  large  work. 

IJ.  A.  Symondx.     Age  of  the  Despots.     Holt.     $3.50. 

The  best  history  of  Italy  in  the  last  century  of  the  middle  ages. 

With  "  The  Revival  of  Learning  "  and  "  The  Fine  Arts  "  it  forms 

a  series  entitled  "  The  Renaissance  in  Italy." 

T.  A.  Trollops.     History  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Florence.     4  v. 
Macm.    $10.00. 

Mrs.  Oliphant.     The  Makers  of  Florence.     Macm.    $3.00. 

Sketches  of  Florentine  history  in  the  close  of  the  middle  ages. 
Id.     Francis  of  Assisi.     [Sunday  Library.]     Macm.     $1.75. 

R.  W.  Church.     Dante.     Macm.     $1.75. 

Contains  a  translation  of  the  treatise  "  De  Monarchia." 

A.  v.  Reumont.     Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  f     2  v.    S.  &  E.     30s. 
A  scholarly  work,  superseding  that  of  Roscoe. 

P.  Villari.   Niccolo  Machiavelli  and  his  Times.   2  v.f  L.  Paul.  24s. 

An  important  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  15th  century. 
W.  R.  Clark.     Savonarola.     Soc.     3s.  Qd. 
J.  Burckhardt.     The  Civilization  of  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance 

in  Italy,  f    2  v.     Dodd.     $7.50. 

P.  Colletta.     History  of  Naples.     2  v.     Ed.     Edmonston.     24s. 
W.  C.  Hazlitt.     History  of  the  Venetian  Republic.    2  v.     L.     28s. 

/.  T.  Bent.    Genoa.     L.     Paul.     18s. 

An  interesting  work,  but  badly  arranged. 


278      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

/.  A.  Wylie.     History  of  the  Waldenses.     C.     $1.25. 

A  good  popular  work. 
J.  Bigelow.     Molinos  the  Quietist.     Scr.     $1.25. 

Episode  of  religious  history  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
Count  Balzani.     Early  Chroniclers  of  Europe.     Italy.    Soc.    $1.20. 


S.  A.  Dunham.     History  of  Spain  and  Portugal.     5  v.     H.    $3.75. 

An  old  but  good  work. 
J.  A.  Harrison.     Spain.     B.     Lothrop.    $1.50. 

Excellent  in  parts,  but  of  unequal  merit. 

$H.  Coppee.    History  of  the  Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arab-Moors. 
2  v.     L.  &  B.    $5.00. 

An  excellent  history  of  Spain  during  the  middle  ages. 
Miss  C.  M.  Yonge.    Christians  and  Moors  in  Spain.   Macm.   $1.25. 

A  sketch  of  a  popular  character. 
J.  A.  Conde.     History  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain.     3  v.     Bohn.    $4.20. 

An  old  standard  work,  but  of  little  value. 
Life  of  Saint  Teresa.     Macm.     $2.00. 


E.  C.  Otte.     Scandinavian  History.     Macm.    $1.50. 

The  best  work ;  another  is  — 

P.  C.  Binding.  History  of  Scandinavia.  Pittsburgh.  Haven.  $3.50. 
IE.  G.  Geijer.  History  of  Sweden.  L.  Whittaker.  Vol.  L,  8s.  6rf. 
T.  Carlyle.  Early  Kings  of  Norway.  H.  $1.25. 

Voltaire.     History  of  Charles  XII.  f     Houghton.     $2.25. 

With  many  inaccuracies  in  detail,  a  book  of  positive  historical 
merit. 


%A.  Rambaud.     History  of  Russia. f     2  v.     E.  &  L.     $11.00. 

A  work  of  the  highest  merit. 
W.  R.  S.  Ralston.     Early  Russian  History.     L.     5s. 

Four  lectures  of  great  value. 

Frances  A.  Shaw.     Brief  History  of  Russia.     O.     50  cents. 
S.  A.  Dunham.     History  of  Poland.     L.    3s.  Qd. 


HISTORICAL,  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      279 

Jos.  Fletcher.     History  of  Poland.     H.    75  cents. 

Hungary  and  its  Revolutions  [with  life  of  Kossuth].   Bohn.    $1.4:0. 

H.  Zschokke.     History  of  Switzerland.!     Armstrong.     $1.50. 

Harriet  D.  S.  Mackenzie.     History  of  Switzerland.     B.     Lothrop. 

$1.50. 

T.  C.  Grattan.     History  of  the  Netherlands.     H.    $1.00. 
C.  M.  Davies.     History  of  Holland.     3  v.     L.    Willis.     36s. 

J.  Geddes.     Administration  of  John  De  Witt.     Vol.  1.     H.     $2.50. 
The  period  of  the  invasion  of  Holland  by  Louis  XIV. 


%G.  Finlay.     History  of  Greece,  from  its  Conquest  by  the  Romans 
(B.C.  146)  to  the  Present  Time  (1864).     7  v.     Macm.    $17.50. 
A  work  of  the  highest  merit  and  authority. 

L.  Sergeant.     New  Greece.     C.     $3.50. 

Sir  E.  Creasy.     History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.     Holt.     $2.50. 

E.  A.  Freeman.     The  Ottoman  Power  in  Europe.     Macm.    $2.00. 
Freeman's  view  is  less  friendly  than  that  of  Creasy. 

J.  Blochwitz.     Brief  History  of  Turkey.     O.     50  cents. 

There  is  a  history  of  the  Turks  in  Vol.  H.  of  J.  H.  Newmans 
Historical  Sketches. 


%Sir  W.  Muir.     Life  of  Mahomet.     S.  &  E.    14s. 

Id.     Annals  of  the  Early  Caliphate.     S.  &  E.    16s. 

W.  Irving.     Mahomet  and  his  Successors.     2  v.     Put.     $2.00. 

%R.  Bosworth  Smith.     Mohammed  and  Mohammedism. 

E.  A .  Freeman.     History  of  the  Saracens.     Macm.     $1.50. 

A  book  of  merit,  but  old. 
S.  Ockley.     History  of  the  Saracens.     Bohn.     $1.40. 

A  fascinating  narrative. 

R.  D.  Osborn.     Islam  under  the  Arabs.     Longm.     12s. 
Id.     Islam  under  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad.     Seeley.     10s.  6rf. 


280     HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

E.  H.  Palmer.    Haroun  al  Raschid.    [New  Plutarch.]    Put.   $1.00. 
A .  Crighton.     History  of  Arabia.     2  v.     H.    $1.50. 


James  Mill.     History  of  British  India.     9  v.     £2  16s. 
The  standard  work.     Excellent  short  ones  are — 
J  W.  W.  Hunter.     Short  History  of  India.     $6.40. 
J J.  T.  Wheeler.     Short  History  of  India.     Macm.     $3.50. 
L.  J.  Trotter.     History  of  India.     Soc.     10s.  Qd. 
R.  G.  Watson.     History  of  Persia.     S.  &  E.     15s. 
H.  H.  Howorth.     History  of  the  Mongols  from  the  Ninth  to  the 

Nineteenth  Century.     3  v.     $28.00. 
D.  C.  Boulger.     History  of  China.     2  v.     L.     Allen.     $14.40. 


14.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

R.  Mackenzie.     The  Nineteenth  Century.     L.     Nelson.    $1.00. 

An  excellent  general  sketch. 
Memoirs  of  Prince  Metternich.     (1773-1815.)f     2  v.     Scr.     $5.00. 

Valuable  in  the  diplomatic  history  of  the  time. 
Sir  A.  Alison.     History  of  Europe  from  1815.     4  v.     H.     $8.00. 

A  work  of  great  literary  merit,  written  with  a  strong  Tory  bias. 
Memoirs  of  Baron  Stockmar.     2  v.     L.  &  S.    $5.00. 

Baron  Stockmar  was  a  leading  adviser  of  Prince  Albert. 
Cardinal  Wiseman.     The  Last  Four  Popes.     [Pius  VII.,  Leo  XII., 
Pius  VIII.,  Gregory  XVI.]     L.     Hurst  &  Blackett.     5s. 

G.  S.  Godkin.     Life  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  First  King  of  Italy. 
$2.00. 

N.  W.  Senior.    Journals  Kept  in  France  and  Italy.    2  v.    L.    Paul. 
24s. 

Mr.  Senior's  journals  and  letters  are  full  of  intelligent  and  in- 
structive observations  upon  current  history. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      281 

L.  v.  Kossuth.     Memoirs  of  My  Exile.     App.    $2.00. 

Francis  Deak :  an  Hungarian  Statesman.     Macm.    $3.00. 

Chas.  de  Mazade.     Cavour.     Put.    $3.00. 

%J.  R.  Seeley.    Life  of  Stein.     2  v.     R.     $7.50. 

Id.     Life  of  E.  M.  Arndt.     R.    $2.25. 

Id.     Lectures  and  Essays.     Macm.     10s.  6rf. 

Jos.  Mazzini :  His  Life  and  Writings.     Houghton.     $1.75. 

/.  G.  L.  Hezekiel.     Prince  Bismarck.     Fords.     $3.50. 

/.   Klaczko.      Two   Chancellors.      [Bismarck   and   Gortschakoff.] 
Houghton.     $2.00. 

W.  Bagehot.     Biographical  Studies.     Longm.     12s. 

Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe.     The  Eastern  Question.     M.     9s. 

,4.  W.  Kinglake.     The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea  [1854].     4  v.     H. 


H.  M.  Hazier.     The  Seven  Weeks'  War.     [1866.]     Macm.    $2.00. 

A.  Borbstaedt  and  F.  Dwyer.      The  Franco-German  War  [1870]. 
L.     Asher.     21s. 

A  military  history;  popular  illustrated  works  are  — 
Edmund  Oilier.     The  Franco-German  War.     2  v.     C.     $7.50. 
Id.     The  Russo-Turkish  War.     2  v.     C.     $8.00. 

F.  V.  Greene.     The  Russian  Army  and  its  Campaigns  in  Turkey 
in  1877-78.     App.    $6.00. 

With  atlas  of  maps. 
T.  W.  Higginson.     Brief  Biographies.     Put.     $1.50  a  vol. 

1.  English  Statesmen.     By  T.  W.  Higginson. 

2.  English  Radical  Leaders.     By  R.  J.  Hinton. 

3.  French  Political  Leaders.     By  Edw.  King. 

4.  German  Political  Leaders.     By  Herbert  Tuttle. 

See  also  lists  11  and  12,  England  and  France. 


282     HISTORICAL.  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

15.  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

%Geo.  Bancroft.     History  of  the  United  States.     10  v.  (to  1783), 
$25.00;  two  additional  vols.  to  1789,  $5.00. 

The  standard  work ;  democratic  in  tone.  Centenary  edition  (to 
1783)  in  6v.,  $13.50;  complete  edition  now  publishing  in  6  v., 
$15.00. 

IR.  Hildreth.    History  of  the  United  States.     6  v.  (to  1820).     H. 
$12.00. 

Sound  and  generally  accurate;  Federalist  in  proclivities. 

Geo.  Tucker.     History  of  the  United  States.    4  v.  (to  1841).    Lip. 
$10.00. 

A  Southern  view;  begins  with  the  Revolution 

Wm.  C.  Bryant  and  S.  H.  Gay.    Popular  History  of  the  United 
States.     4v.     Scr.    $24.00. 

Handsomely  illustrated.    The  early  parts  are  the  best. 

B.  J.  Lossing.     Cyclopaedia  of  United  States  History.    2  v.     H. 
$12.00. 

A  valuable  book  of  reference,  but  badly  arranged. 

S.  G.  Drake.     Dictionary  of  American  Biography.     Houghton. 

/.  /.  Lalor.     Cyclopaedia  of  Political  Science.     2  v.     Ch.     Gary. 
Each,  $6.00. 

J.  Winsor.     Memorial  History  of  Boston.     4  v.     O.     $25.00. 

A  collection  of  monographs  by  various  writers. 
Mrs.  Martha  J.  Lamb.   History  of  New  York.   2  v.   Barnes.  $20.00. 

A  work  of  very  great  merit. 

J.  C.  Rldpaih.    Popular  History  of  the  United  States.    Cincinnati. 
Jones.     $3.00. 

The  best  history  of  an  intermediate  size. 

S.  Eliot.  History  of  the  United  States  (to  1850).   B.   Ware.  $1.35. 
Very  judicious  and  accurate,  but  dry. 

/.  A.  Doyle.    History  of  the  United  States.     [Freeman's  Historical 
Series.]     Holt.    $1.00. 

An  excellent  English  work. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      283 

R.  Mackenzie.     America.     L.     Nelson.    $1.00. 

Another  good  English  work,  embracing  all  America. 

/.  T.  Short.  Historical  Reference  Lists.  Columbus.  Smythe.  40  cts. 
Chiefly  having  reference  to  American  history. 


/.  T.  Short.     North  Americans  of  Antiquity.     H.    $3.00. 

The  best  book  upon  the  ethnology,  etc.,  of  the  Indians. 
J.  W.  Foster.    Prehistoric  Races  of  the  United  States.   Ch.    Griggs. 

$3.00. 

The  best  work  upon  American  archaeology. 

G.  E.  Eliis.    The  Red  Man  and  the  White  Man.    L.  &  B.    $3.50. 

F.  A.  Walker.     The  Indian  Question.    $1.50. 

G.  W.  Manypenny.   Our  Indian  Wards.   Cincinnati.  Clarke.  $3.00. 
Mrs.  Jackson  (H.  H.) .     A  Century  of  Dishonor.     H.    $1.50. 

%H.  H.  Bancroft.     Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States.     5  v.     San 
Francisco.    Each,  $4.50. 

A  cyclopaedia  of  information. 

H.  R.  Schoolcrqft.    Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States.    6  v.    Lip. 
$75.00. 

Contains  much  information,  with  much  useless  matter. 
G.  W.  Williams.    History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America.    2  v. 
Put    $7.00. 

Colonial  Period.     1607  to  1763. 

Jos.  Grahame.    History  of  the  United  States  of  North  America, 
4v.    L.    £2 10s. 

A  fair  and  friendly  English  account,  reaching  1776. 

E.  D.  Neill.     The  English  Colonization  of  America.     L.     14s. 

Of  especial  value  for  the  Middle  States. 
t#.  C.  Lodge.     Short  History  of  the  English  Colonies.    H.    $3.00. 

An  excellent  compendium,  arranged  by  colonies. 
$J.  A.  Doyle.     English  Colonies  in  America.   Vol.  I.    Holt.    $3.50. 

Vol.  I.  contains  the  Southern  colonies.    It  is  a  very  good  work. 

F.  F.  Charlevoix.    History  of  New  France.f    6  v.    N.Y.    $45.00. 


284      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

JF.  Parkman.  France  and  England  in  North  America.  7  v.  L.  &  B. 
Each,  $2.50. 

1.  The  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World. 

2.  The  Jesuits  in  North  America. 

3.  The  Discovery  of  the  Great  West. 

4.  The  Old  Regime  in  Canada. 

5.  Count  Frontenac  and  New  France. 
The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac.    2  v. 

A  series  of  the  highest  excellence. 

T.  Mante.     History  of  the  Late  War  in  North  America.    L.    1772. 
An  authentic  account  of  the  French  and  Indian  war. 

JJ.  G.  Palfrey.     History  of  New  England.     4  v.     L.  &  B.     $14.50. 
The  best  history  of  New  England. 

Massachusetts  and  her  Early  History.     L.  &  B. 

An  instructive  series  of  lectures  by  different  persons. 

Peter  Oliver.     The  Puritan  Commonwealth.     L.  &  B.    $2.50. 
Hostile  to  the  Puritans. 

J.  H.  Trumbull.  The  True  Blue  Laws  of  Connecticut  and  New 
Haven,  and  the  False  Blue  Laws,  invented  by  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Peters.  Hartford.  Am.  Pub.  Co. 

J.R.  Frothingham.     Rise  of  the  Republic.     L.  &  B.    $3.50. 
A  history  of  the  growth  of  the  sentiment  of  union. 

E.  G.  Scott.  The  Development  of  Constitutional  Liberty  in  the 
English  Colonies  of  America.  Put.  $2.50. 

JJ.  G.  Shea.    Discovery  and  Exploration  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 


Indispensable  to  the  student  of  western  history. 

R.  Blanchard.     Discovery  and  Conquests  of  the  Northwest.     Ch. 

MacCoun.    $3.00. 
Mrs.  Anne  Grant.  Memoirs  of  an  American  Lady.  Albany.  Munsell. 

$3.00. 

A  graphic  picture  of  life  in  Albany  before  the  revolution. 

See  also  articles  by  T.  W.  Higginson,  John  Fiske,  and  Edw.  Eggleston 
in  Harper's  Monthly  and  the  Century  for  1882  and  1883. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATUBE  AND  AUTHOBITTBS.     285 


Revolutionary  Period.      1763  to  1789. 
t«7.  Winsor.     Handbook  of  the  American  Revolution.     Hough  ton. 

si  •>-. 

qp.L.^t). 

An  exhaustive  list  of  authorities. 

/.  M.  Ludlow.   The  War  of  American  Independence.  E.  &  L.  $1.00. 
An  English  work  belonging  to  the  Epochs  Series. 

\G.   W.  Greene.     Historical  View  of  the  American  Revolution. 
Houghton.     $1.50. 

An  instructive  series  of  lectures. 

Id.   The  German  Element  in  the  War  of  Independence.  Houghton. 
$1.50. 

%B.  J.  Lossing.     Field-book  of  the  Revolution.     2  v.     H.     $14.00. 
A  description  of  the  battle-fields,  etc. 

H.  B.  Carrington.     Battles  of  the  Revolution.     Barnes.     $6.00. 

By  an  army  officer;  with  plans  of  battle-fields,  etc. 
Thos.  Jones.   New  York  during  the  Revolutionary  War.   2  v.    App. 
$15.00. 

By  a  Tory;  its  unfairness  shown  by  H.  P.  Johnston. 

L.   C.  Draper.     King's  Mountain   and  its   Heroes.     Cincinnati. 
Thomson.    $4.00. 

A  valuable  monograph. 
W.  L.  Stone.    Border  Wars  of  the  American  Revolution.    2  v.    H. 

$1.50. 

C.  W.  Butterjield.    The  Washington-Irvine  Correspondence.   Madi- 
son (Wis.).     Atwood. 

An  important  work  for  the  history  of  the  North-west. 

W.  H.  Trescot.     Diplomacy  of  the  Revolution.     App.     75  cents. 

A.  S.  Bolles.   Financial  History  of  the  United  States.   (1774-1860.) 
2  v.     App.     $6.00. 

\G.  T.  Curtis.    History  of  the  Constitution.     2  v.     H.    $6.00. 

t.  Sabine.   History  of  the  American  Loyalists.   2  v.   L.  &  B.  $7.00. 
A  work  of  great  merit  and  value. 

Familiar  Letters  of  John  and  Abigail  Adams.     Houghton.     $2.00 


286     HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

Period  of  the  Republic. 

J.  B.  McMaster.   History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States.   App. 

12.50. 

Only  one  vol.  published;  gives  special  attention  to  social  history. 

Jas.  Schouler.     History  of  the  American  Republic.     Washington. 
Morrison.    $5.00. 

Two  volumes  published,  reaching  1817. 

W.  R.  Houghton.   Hist,  of  American  Politics.    Indianapolis.    Neely. 
With  numerous  illustrative  diagrams. 

A.  W.  Young.   The  American  Statesman.   N.Y.   Goodspeed.  $5.00. 

Contains  a  good  summary  of  congressional  debates,  etc. 
E.  Williams.     Statesman's  Manual.     N.Y. 

I  Alex.  Johnston.     History  of  American  Politics.     Holt.     $1.00. 

A  brief  compendium  of  high  merit. 

/.  Marshall.     Life  of  Washington.     2  v.     Ph.     Claxton.     $6.00. 
Contains  the  best  political  history  of  Washington's  administra- 
tion. 

W.  H.  Trescot.     Diplomatic   History  of  the   Administrations  of 
Washington  and  Adams.     L.  &  B.    $1.25. 

$H.  von  Hoist.     Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States.     Ch. 
Callaghan.     $11.50. 

The  three  volumes  published  reach  1850. 
H.  Adams.     Documents   Relating  to  New  England  Federalism. 


Throws  much  light  upon  the  history  of  the  party. 
B.  J.  Lossing.     Field-book  of  the  War  of  1812.     H.     $7.00. 
G.  W.  Outturn.    Campaigns  of  the  War  of  1812-15.    N.Y.    Miller. 

$5.00. 

By  an  army  officer. 

R.Johnson.   History  of  the  War  of  1812.   Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co.  $1.25. 

A  shorter  and  popular  work. 
^Theodore  Roosevelt.     The  Naval  War  of  1812.     Put.     $2.50. 

An  accurate  and  impartial  account. 
R.  S.  Ripley.     The  War  with  Mexico.     2  v. 
W.  G.  Sumner.    History  of  American  Currency.    Holt.    $8.00. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      287 

The  First  Century  of  the  Republic.     1876.     H.    $5.00. 

A  valuable  collection  of  essays  surveying  the  period. 
T.  H.  Benton.     Thirty  Years  in  the  United  States  Senate.     2  y. 
App.     $6.00. 

Covering  the  period  from  1821  to  1851. 
Nathan  Sargent.     Public  Men  and  Events.     2  v.     Lip. 

Reminiscences  from  1817  to  1883 ;  Whig  in  tone. 

H.  Wilson.     History  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power.   3  v. 
Houghton.     Each,  $3.00. 


W.  H.  Prescott.     History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico.    3  v.    Lip. 

$11.50. 

Id.    History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru.     2  v.    Lip.    $3.00. 
A.  Helps.     The  Spanish  Conquest  of  America.    4  v.     H.    $6.00. 
C.  A.  Washburn.     History  of  Paraguay.     2  v.     L.  &  S.    $7.50. 
See  also  Carlyle's  article  on  Dr.  Francia. 
C.  R.  Markham.     The  War  Between  Peru  and  Chili,  1879-82. 

N.Y.     Worthington. 

The  Civil  War. 

%Comte  de  Paris.    History  of  the  Civil  War.    3  v.  published.    Ph. 
Porter  &  Coates.    $3.50  a  vol. 

The  best  history  of  the  war,  so  far  as  completed. 
Campaigns  of  the  Civil  War.     Scr.    $1.00  per  vol. 

1.  /.  G.  Nicolay.     The  Outbreak  of  Rebellion. 

2.  M.  F.  Force.     From  Fort  Henry  to  Corinth. 

3.  A.  S.  Webb.     The  Peninsula. 

4.  J.  C.  Ropes.     The  Army  under  Pope. 

5.  F.  W.  Palfrey.     The  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg. 

6.  A.  Doubleday.     Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg. 

7.  H.  M.  Cist.     The  Army  of  the  Cumberland. 

8.  F.  V.  Greene.     The  Mississippi. 

9.  /.  D.  Cox.     The  Campaign  of  Atlanta. 

10.  Id.     The  March  to  the  Sea. 

11.  G.  E.  Pond.     The  Shenandoah  Valley  hi  1864. 

12.  A.  A.  Humphreys.     The  Campaigns  of  Grant  in  Virginia. 


288      HISTORICAL,  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

The  Navy  in  the  Civil  War.     Scr.     $1.00  per  vol. 

1.  J.  R.  Soley.     The  Blockade  and  the  Cruisers. 

2.  Daniel  Ammen.     The  Atlantic  Coast. 

3.  A.  T.  Mohan.     The  Gulf  and  Inland  Waters. 

These  fourteen  small  vols.  are  all  by  persons  specially  qualified 
to  write  upon  their  subjects,  and  form  an  admirable  condensed 
history  of  the  war. 

Supplementary  volumes :  — 

F.  Phisterer.    Statistical  Record  of  the  Armies  of  the  United 

States. 
A.  A.  Humphreys.     Gettysburg  to  the  Rapidan. 

J.  W.  Draper.   History  of  the  American  Civil  War.  3  v.   H.  $  10.50. 

With  an  introduction  upon  the  influence  of  physical  causes  upon 
American  history. 

H.  Greeley.    The  American  Conflict.   2  v.   Hartford.   Case.  $10.00. 

Jeff.  Davis.     Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government.     2  v. 
App.    $10.00. 

A.  H.  Stephens.     Constitutional  View  of  the  Late  War  between  the 
States.     Nat.  Pub.  Co.    $5.50. 

These  two  volumes,  by  the  president  and  vice-president  of  the 
Confederacy,  present  the  Southern  view.  See  also  — 

E.  A.  Pollard.     The  Lost  Cause.     N.Y.     Treat.     $5.00.        and 

J.  E.  Johnston.     Narrative  of  Military  Operations.     App.  $5.00. 

A.  Badeau.     Military  History  of  U.  S.  Grant.     3  v.    App.  $12.00. 
W.  T.  Sherman.     Memoirs.     2  v.     App.     $5.50. 

W.   Swinton.     Campaigns   of  the   Army  of  the  Potomac.     N.Y 
Richardson.     $4.00. 

For  original  documents :  — 

The  War  of  the  Rebellion.     Published  by  Congress. 
Frank  Moore.     The  Rebellion  Record.     12  v.     Put. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.     289 

Histories  of  the  States.* 

Maine.     By  W.  D.  Williamson.     2  v.     Hallowell.    $9.00. 
New  Hampshire.     By  Jeremy  Belknap.     3  v.     B.     $7.50. 
Vermont.     By  Zadock  Thompson.     Burlington.    $4.50. 
Massachusetts.     By  J.  S.  Barry.     3  v.     B.     $8.50. 
Rhode  Island.     By  S.  G.  Arnold.     2  v.     App.     $6.00. 
Connecticut.     By  B.  Trumbull.    2  v.    New  Haven.    $9.00. 
Id.     By  G.  H.  Hollister.    2  v.    New  Haven.     $5.00. 
New  York.     By  J.  R.  Brodhead.     2  v.     H.     $6.00. 
New  Jersey.     By  J.  O.  Raum.     2  v.     Ph.     Potter.  t  $6.00. 
Pennsylvania.     By  Robert  Proud.    2  v.     Ph.     $12.00. 
Id.     By  W.  H.  Egle.     Harrisburg.     $5.50. 
Maryland.     By  J.  L.  Bozman.     2  v.     Baltimore.     $5.00. 
Virginia.     By  R.  R.  Howison.     2  v.     Richmond.    $6.00. 
North  Carolina.     By  J.  W.  Moore.     2  v.     Raleigh.     $5.00. 
South  Carolina.     By  D.  Ramsay.    2  v.     Charleston.     $4.00. 
Id.     By  W.  G.  Simms.     N.Y.    Redfield.    $2.25. 
Georgia.     By  W.  B.  Stevens.     2  v.    Ph.    $5.00. 
Florida.     By  G.  R.  Fairbanks.     Lip.    $2.50. 
Alabama.     By  A.  J.  Picket.    2  v.     Charleston.     $7.50. 
Mississippi.     By  /.  F.  H.  Claiborne.    Jackson.     2  v.    $7.00- 
Louisiana.     By  C.  Gayarre.     3  v.     N.Y.     $12.00. 
Texas.     By  H.  Yoakum.     2  v.     N.Y.    Redfield.     $8.00. 
Tennessee.     By  /.  G.  M.  Ramsey.     Lip.    $2.50. 
Kentucky.     By  Humphrey  Marshall.     2  v.     Frankfort.     $14.50. 
Ohio.     By /as.  W.  Taylor.    [Unfinished;  ends  1787.]    Cincinnati 

$6.00. 

Id.     By  /.  S.  C.  Abbott.     Detroit.     $4.00. 
Indiana.     By  John  B.  Dillon.     Indianapolis.     $3.00. 

*  For  this  selected  list  I  am  principally  indebted  to  Mr.  D.  S.  Durrie, 
Librarian  of  the  Wisconsin  Historical  Society. 


290      HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

Illinois.     By  A .  Davidson  and  B.  Stuve.     Springfield.    $5.00. 

Michigan.     By  Jos.  V.  Campbell.     Detroit.     $4.50. 

Id.     By  J.  H.  Lanman.     H.     75  cents. 

Minnesota.     By  E.  D.  Neill.     Minneapolis.    $2.50. 

Wisconsin.     By  W.  R.  Smith,     [Unfinished.]     Madison. 

Kansas.     By  D.  W.  Wilder,     Topeka.    $5.00. 

Missouri.     By  W.  F.  Switzler.     St.  Louis.     Bams.     $2.50. 

California.     By  Franklin  Tuthill.     San  Francisco.     Bancroft. 

Oregon.     By  W.  H.  Gray.     Portland.   $4.00. 

^American  Commonwealths.     Houghton. 

Virginia.     By  John  Esten  Cooke. 
History  of  the  Pacific  States.    By  H.  H.  Bancroft  [now  publishing]. 

San  Francisco.    Bancroft. 

Biographies. 

George  Washington.     By  W.  Irving.     5  v.     Put.     $5.00. 

Alexander  Hamilton.     By  /.  T.  Morse.    2  v.     L.  &  B.    $4.50. 

John  Adams.     By  J.  Q.  and  C.  F.  Adams.     Lip. 

Thomas  Jefferson.     By  H.  S.  Randall.    3  v.    Lip. 

Id.     By  Jos.  Parton.    Houghton.    $2.00. 

Benjamin  Franklin  (autobiography).     By  J.  Bigelow.     3  v.     Lip. 

$7.50. 

Id.     By  Jos.  Parton.     2  v.     Houghton.     $4.00. 
General  N.  Greene.     By  G,  W.  Greene.    3  v.     Put.    $12.00. 
Israel  Putnam.   By  /.  N.  Tarbox.    Lockwood,  Brooks,  &  Co.   $2.50. 
F.  W.  Steuben.     By  Fred  Kapp.     H. 
Patrick  Henry.     By  W.  Wirt.     Ph.     Claxton.    $1.50. 
Timothy  PickerHg.     By  0.  Pickering  and  C.   W.   Upham.    4  v. 

L.  &  B.    I14.JO. 

James  Madison.     By  W.  C.  Rives.    3  v.     L.  &  B.    $10.50. 
John  Jay.    -By  Wm.  Jay.    H. 
Gouverneur  Morris.     By  Jared  Sparks.     L.  &  B. 
William  Pinkney.     By  Henry  Wheaton.     $1.25. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.     291 

Albert  Gallatin.     By  H.  Adams.     Lip.     $5.00. 

George  Cabot.     By  H.  C.  Lodge.     L.  &  B.     $3.50. 

Aaron  Burr.    By  Jos.  Parton.    2  v.     Houghton.    $4.00. 

Andrew  Jackson.    By  Jos.  Parton.     3  v.     Houghton.    $6.00 

Daniel  Webster.    By  G.  T.  Curtis.    2  v.     App.     $4.00. 

Josiah  Quincy.     By  Edmund  Quincy.    0.    $3.00. 

W.  L.  Garrison.    By  0.  Johnson.     B.     Russell. 

W.  H.  Seward.    By  F.  W.  Seward.    App.    $4.25. 

Charles  Sumner.    By  E.  L.  Pierce.    2  v.    R.    $6.00. 

James  Buchanan.     By  G.  T.  Curtis.     2  v.     H. 

Abraham  Lincoln.     By  H.  J.  Raymond.    N.Y.     Derby.     $1.50. 

Id.     By  C.  G.  Leland.     [New  Plutarch.]     Put.     $1.00. 

Library  of  American  Biography.    Edited  by  Jared  Sparks.     10  v- 

H.    $12.50. 
Theodore  Parker.    Historic  Americans.    [Washington,  Jefferson, 

Franklin,  Adams.]    B.    Fuller.    $1.50. 
J  American  Statesmen.    Houghton.    Per  vol.,  $1.25.    Contains :  — 

Alexander  Hamilton.     By  H.  C.  Lodge. 

J.  Q.  Adams.     By  /.  T.  Morse. 

J.  C.  Calhoun.    By  H.  von  Hoist. 

Andrew  Jackson.    By  W.  G.  Sumner. 

John  Randolph.     By  H.  Adams. 

James  Monroe.    By  D.  C.  Oilman. 

Thomas  Jefferson.    By  J.  T.  Morse. 

Daniel  Webster.    By  H.  C.  Lodge. 
See  also  the  next  list. 

Authorities. 

W.  Bradford.    History  of  the  Plymouth  Plantation.    $2.25. 
Alex.  Young.     Chronicles  of  Plymouth. 
Id.    Chronicles  of  Massachusetts.    2  T.    $5.00. 
Records  of  the  Governor  and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 
Edited  by  J.  W.  Thornton. 


292     HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

John  Winthrop.     History  of  New  England.     1630-49.    2  v.   $5.00 
By  the  first  governor  of  Massachusetts. 

Thos.  Hutchinson.     History  of  the  Province  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 
$4.00. 

The  author  was  lieutenant-governor  of  the  colony,  and  a  strong 
Tory. 

Documents  Relating  to  the  Colonial  History  of  the  State  of  New 
York.     11  v.     Albany.     Published  by  the  State. 

American  Archives.     Edited  by  Peter  Force. 

American  State  Papers. 

Congressional  Documents,  etc. 

Elliot's  Debates  [of  the  Constitution].     5  v.     Lip.     $12.50. 

Annals  of  Congress. 

Archaeologia  Americana. 

T.  H.  Benton.    Abridgment  of  Debates  of  Congress.     1789-1856. 
16  v.     App. 

The  Federal  and  State  Constitutions,  etc.   Compiled  by  B.  P.  Poore. 

Washington.     1878. 

Treaties  and  Conventions,  etc.     Washington.     1871. 

Life  and  Writings  of  George  Washington.     12  v.     H.    $18.00. 

Life  and  Works  of  John  Adams.     10  v.     L.  &  B.    $30.00. 

Works  of  Alexander  Hamilton.     7  v.     N.Y.     Trow.    $21.00. 

Letters  and  Other  Writings  of  James  Madison.    4  v.   Lip. 

Writings  of  Thomas  Jefferson.     9  v.    Lip.     $23.50. 

Life  and  Writings  of  Benjamin  Franklin.     10  v.     Ch.    $20.00. 

Papers  of  James  Madison.     4  v.     Ph.     $16.00. 

Works  of  Daniel  Webster.     6  v.     L.  &  B.    $18.00. 

Life  and  Works  of  John  C.  Calhoun.     6  v.    App.    $15.00. 

Works  of  Henry  Clay.     6  v.    $18.00. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.     293 


16.   SELECTED  LIST  OF  HISTORICAL  NOVELS,  POEMS,  AND  PLAYS, 
ARRANGED  CHRONOLOGICALLY. 

A.Lang.     Helen  of  Troy.     (Poem.) 
W.  Morris.     Jason.     (Poem.) 

Id.     The  Earthly  Paradise. 

A  collection  of  poems  narrating  Greek  and  German  legends. 
C.  Kingsley.     Andromeda.     (Poem.) 
A.C.Swinburne.     Atalanta  in  Calydon.     (Poem.) 

B.C. 

15th  century.  —  Ebers.     Uarda  [Rameses  II.]. 
6th  century.  —  Id.     Daughter  of  an  Egyptian  King. 
5th  century.  —  Landor.     Pericles  and  Aspasia. 
2d  century.  —  Ebers.     The  Sisters. 
1st  century.  —  Shakespeare.     Julius  Caesar  (Drama). 

A.D. 

1st  century.  —  /.  F.  Clarke.     Thomas  Didymus. 
Philochristus.     Onesimus. 
Bulwer.     The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii. 
2d  century.  —  Ebers.     The  Emperor  [Hadrian]. 
3d  century. —  Cardinal  Newman.     Callista. 

Cardinal  Wiseman.     Fabiola  [The  Catacombs]. 
Mrs.  Hunt.     The  Wards  of  Plotinus. 
W.  Ware.     Zenobia.     Aurelian. 
4th  century.  —  Ebers.     Homo  Sum  [330,  Sinai]. 

V.  Rydberg.     The  Last  Athenian  [361]. 
5th  century. —  C.  Kingsley.     Hypatia  [Alexandria]. 

Wilkie  Collins.     Antonina,  or  the  Fall  of  Rome. 
8th  century. —  G.  Freytag.     Our  Forefathers :  Ingraban. 
10th  century.—  Scheffel.     Ekkehart  [The  Monks  of  St.  Gallen]. 

Taylor.     Edwin  the  Fair  (Drama) . 

llth  century.  —  Bulwer.     Harold,  the  Last  of  the  Saxon  Kings. 
Kingsley.     Hereward,  the  Last  of  the  English. 
12th  century.  —  Scott.     The  Betrothed.     The  Talisman.    Ivanhoe 
Leasing.     Nathan  the  Wise  (Drama). 


294     HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES. 

12th  century.  —  The  Luck  of  Ladysmede. 

E.  E.  Hale.     In  his  Name  [Waldenses]. 
13th  century.  —  Shakespeare.     King  John  (Drama). 

C.  Kingsley.     The  Saints'  Tragedy. 

G.  P.  R.James.    Forest  Days  [Simon  de  Montfort]. 

Mrs.  Hemans.     The  Vespers  of  Palermo  (Drama). 
14th  century.  —  Schiller.     Wilhelm  Tell  (Drama). 

Bulwer.     Rienzi,  the  Last  of  the  Tribunes. 

Taylor.     Philip  van  Artevelde  (Drama). 

Shakespeare.     Richard  II.  (Drama). 
15th  century.  —  Id.     Henry  IV.,  V.,  VI.    Richard  III.  (Dramas). 

Schiller.     Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans  (Drama). 

Scott.  Fair  Maid  of  Perth.  Quentin  Durward. 
Anne  of  Geierstein. 

Bulwer.     The  Last  of  the  Barons  [Warwick]. 

C.  Reade.     The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth. 

Geo.  Eliot.     Romola  [Savonarola]. 
16th  century.  —  Shakespeare.     Henry  VIII.  (Drama). 

Scott.  Marmion.  Lady  of  the  Lake.  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel  (Poems).  —  The  Monastery.  The  Ab- 
bot. Kenil  worth. 

Kingsley.     Amyas  Leigh,  or  Westward  Ho  I 

Schiller.     Maria  Stuart  (Drama). 

Goethe.     Egmont  (Drama). 

17th  century. —  Scott.  Fortunes  of  Nigel.  Legend  of  Montrose. 
Woodstock.  Peveril  of  the  Peak.  Old  Mortality. 
—  Rokeby  (Poem). 

Manzoni.     The  Betrothed  [Milan,  1628]. 

Schiller.     Wallenstein  (Drama). 

Shorthouse.     John  Inglesant. 

Browning.  Strafford  (Drama).  The  Ring  and  the 
Book  (Poem). 

Ainsworth.     Old  Saint  Paul's. 

Auerbach.     Spinoza. 

Blackmore.     Lorna  Doone. 
18th  century. —  Thackeray.     Henry  Esmond.     The  Virginians. 

Scott.  Rob  Roy.  The  Heart  of  Midlothian.  Waverly. 
Redgauntlet. 


HISTOKICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      295 

18th  century.  —  Browning.  King  Victor  and  King  Charles  (Drama). 
Dickens.     Barnaby  Rudge  (1780). 
Miss  Burney  (Mad.  D'Arblay).    Evelina. 
Revolutionary  epoch :  — 

Victor  Hugo.    Ninety-three.     Les  Mise'rables. 

Mrs.  GaskelL     Sylvia's  Lovers. 

Geo.  Eliot.     Adam  Bede. 

Blackmore.     The  Maid  of  Sker.     Alice  Lorraine. 

Dickens.     Tale  of  Two  Cities. 

Erckmann-Chatrian.      The   States   General.      The 

Country  in  Danger.     Madame  Therese.     Year 

One.     Citizen  Bonaparte. 
Miss  Roberts.    On  the  Edge  of  the  Storm.    Noblesse 

Oblige. 

Fritz  Renter.     In  the  Year  Thirteen. 
Erckmann-Chatrian.   The  Conscript.   The  Invasion 

of  France.    The  Siege  of  Phalsburg.    Waterloo. 

American  History. 

17th  century.  —  Longfellow.     The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish. 

Hawthorne.     The  Scarlet  Letter. 

Paulding.     The  Dutchman's  Fireside. 

Miss  Sedgwick.     Hope  Leslie. 

Whittier.     Mogg  Megone. 
18th  century.  —  Simms.     The  Yemassee  (S.C.,  1715). 

Longfellow.     Evangeline  (Poem). 

Mrs.  Stowe.     The  Minister's  Wooing. 

J.  E.  Cooke.     The  Virginia  Comedians. 

Cooper.    Leather-Stocking  Tales. 
Revolution.  — Cooper.     The  Spy.     The  Pilot. 

Kennedy.     Horseshoe  Robinson. 

Winthrop.     Edwin  Brothertoft. 

Simms.     The  Partisan,  etc. 


PART  II. 

BOOKS  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING  IN  CONNECTION 
WITH  CLASS  WORK.* 

1.  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

E.  Clodd.     The  Childhood  of  the  World.     App.    75  cents. 

Id.     The  Childhood  of  Religions.     App.     $1.25. 

Designed  to  give  children  correct  notions  of  primeval  times, 
/.  Banner.     Child's  History  of  Greece.     2  v.     H.     $2.50. 
Id.     Child's  History  of  Rome.    2  v.     H.    $2.50. 
Mrs.  C.  H.  B.  Laing.     The  Seven  Kings  of  the  Seven  Kills.      Ph. 
Porter  &  Coates.     $1.00. 

Id.   The  Heroes  of  the  Seven  Hills.     Ph.     Porter  &  Coates.    $1.25. 

These  two  books  contain  the  legends  of  early  Roman  history. 
Chas.  Dickens.     Child's  History  of  England.     $1.00. 
J.  Bonner.     Child's  History  of  England.     H. 

S.  R.  Gardiner.     English  History  for  Young  Folks.     Holt.     $1.00. 

A  work  of  the  greatest  soundness  and  accuracy. 

L.  Creighton.     Stories  from  English  History.     N.Y.     Whittaker. 
J.  R.  Green.     Readings  in  English  History.     Macm.     $1.50. 
Sir  W.  Scott.     Tales  of  a  Grandfather. 

Stories  from  Scotch  and  French  history. 
Sarah  Brook.   French  History  for  English  Children.   Macm.   $2.00. 

An  admirable  book  with  good  maps. 
Miss  C.  S.  Kirkland.    Short  History  of  France.    Ch.   Jansen.  $1.50. 

S.  Lanier.     The  Boys'  Froissart.     Scr.     $3.00. 

A  selection  of  the  best  stories  from  the  prince  of  chroniclers. 
Belt  and  Spur.     Scr.     $2.00. 

Stories  from  the  mediaeval  chronicles;  excellently  illustrated. 

*  In  this  list  I  have  derived  much  assistance  from  "Books  for  the 
young,"  by  Miss  C.  M.  Hewins  of  the  Hartford  Library. 


BOOKS   FOR   COLLATERAL   READING.  297 

G.  M.  Towle.     Heroes  of  History.     [Marco  Polo,  Vasco  da  Gama, 
Magellan,  Pizarro,  Drake,  Raleigh.]     L.  &  S. 

An  excellent  series  of  biographies.    Each,  $1.25. 

Historical  Biographies.     Rivington.     Each,  $1.00 :  — 
Simon  de  Montfort.     By  M.  Creighton. 
The  Black  Prince.     By  L.  Creighton. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh.     By  L.  Creighton. 
Marlborough.     By  L.  Creighton. 

M.  J.  Guest.    Lectures  on  English  History.    Macm.    $1.50. 
Good  for  young  people  above  the  age  of  children. 

Mrs.  M.  E.  Green.    The  Princesses  of  England.   6  v.   Each,  10s.  6rf. 

The  Young  Folks'  History.     E.  &  L.     Each,  $1.50.     Includes :  — 
America.     By  H.  Butterworih. 
Russia.     By  N.  H.  Dole. 
Queens  of  England.     By  Rosalie  Kaufman. 
Mexico.     By  F.  A.  Ober. 

England,  Germany,  France,  Greece,  Rome,  and  Bible  History. 
By  Miss  Yonge. 

A.  J.  Church.     The  Last  Days  of  Jerusalem.     L.     Seeley.     $2.00. 

/.  Abbott.   Biographies  of  Famous  Persons  (about  thirty  in  all).    H. 
Each,  $1.00. 

Brooke  Herford.     The  Story  of  Religion  in  England.    Ch.    Jansen. 
$1.50. 

Thos.  Archer.     Decisive  Events  in  History.     C.    $1.75. 
Handsomely  illustrated. 

Mrs.  H.  R.  Haweis.    Chaucer  for  Children.    L.   Chatto  &  Windus. 

$2.25. 

Id.     Spenser  for  Children.    $3.75. 

Beautifully  illustrated  ;  instructive  for  manners,  costumes,  etc. 


BOOKS  FOli   COLLATERAL   KEADLNG 


2.   AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

N.  Hawthorne.    True  Stories.    [Grandfather's  Chair,  etc.]    Hough- 
ton.    $1.00. 

The  early  history  of  New  England. 
C.  C.  Coffin.    Old  Times  in  the  Colonies.    H.    $3.00. 
Id.    The  Boys  of  76.    H.    $3.00. 
Id.    The  Building  of  the  Nation.    H.    $3.00. 
Id.    The  Boys  of  '61.    H.    $3.00. 

A  handsomely  illustrated  series  of  works. 

E.  Eggleston.     Famous  American  Indians.     [Montezuma,  Poca- 
hontas,  etc.]     N.Y.    Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co.    Each,  $1.25. 

M.Schele  de  Vere.    Romance  of  American  History.    Put.    $1.25. 

J.  D.  Champlin.     Young  Folks'  History  of  the  War  for  the  Union. 
Holt.    $2.75. 

An  excellent  book,  well  illustrated. 

J.  Banner.     Child's  History  of  the  United  States.    3  v.    H.   $3.75. 
Mrs.  A  .  S.  Richardson.   History  of  Our  Country.   Houghton.  $4.50. 

T.  W.  Higginson.   Young  Folks'  History  of  America.    L.  &  S.  $1.50. 

Bonner's  is  designed  for  younger  children  than  the  others; 
Mrs.  Richardson  is  superior  in  narration  ;  Higginson  in  com- 
pleteness of  view. 

Id.    Young  Folks'  History  of  Explorers.     L.  &  S.    $1.50. 

C.  H.  Woodman.     Boys  and  Girls  of  the  Revolution.    Lip.    $1.25. 

/.  K.  Hosmer.     The  Color  Guard.     B.     Fuller.     $1.50. 

Id.     The  Thinking  Bayonet.     B.     Fuller.     $1.75. 
Belong  to  the  war  of  the  rebellion. 

C.  K.  True.    Life  of  Captain  John  Smith.    N.Y.    Phillips  &  Hunt 
$1.00. 

Centenary  History  of  the  United  States.     N.Y.     Barnes.    $5.00. 
An  excellent  family  history. 


IN   CONNECTION   WITH   CLASS   WORK.  299 

3.  MYTHS  AND  LEGENDS. 

2V.  Hawthorne.    Wonder-book.     Houghton.    $1.00. 

Id.     Tanglewood  Tales.     Houghton.     $1.00. 

Tell  the  story  of  several  Greek  myths  in  a  charming  manner. 
Chas.  Kingsley.     The  Heroes.     Macm.     $1.50. 

The  Greek  heroic  legends. 
Thos.  Bui/inch.    The  Age  of  Fable.    L.  &  S.    $2.50. 

A  new  edition,  well  illustrated,  edited  by  Rev.  E.  E.  Hale. 
C.  Witt.     Classical  Mythology.     Holt.    $1.25. 

Not  a  complete  mythology,  but  a  collection  of  legends,  with 

their  explanation. 

A.  J.  Church.     Stories  from  Homer.     L.     Seeley.    $2.00. 

Id.     Stories  from  Virgil.    $2.00. 

Id.     Stories  from  the  Greek  Tragedies.     $2.00. 

Id.     Stories  [of  the  East]  from  Herodotus.    $2.00. 

Id.     Stories  from  Livy.     $2.00. 

Id.     Stories  of  the  Persian  War.    $2.00. 

Id.     Travellers'  True  Tales  from  Lucian.    $2.00. 

Id.     Heroes  and  Kings.     $2.00. 

M.Frere.  Eastern  Fairy  Legends.  (Old  Deccan  Days.)  Lip.  $1.25. 

A.B.Mitford.     Tales  of  Old  Japan.    Macm.    $2.00. 

W.  E.  Griffis.    Japanese  Fairy  World.    $1.50. 

P.  W.  Joyce.    Old  Celtic  Romances.    $3.00. 

J.  F.  Campbell.    Popular  Tales  of  the  West  Highlands.    4  v.    Ed. 
Edmonston.     32s. 

W.  R.  S.  Ralston.   Russian  Folk-tales.   N.Y.   Worthington.  $1.50. 
W.  H.  J.  Bleek.     Hottentot  Fables.     L.     Triibner.     3s.  6d. 
/.  C.  Harris.     Uncle  Remus.     [Negro  stories.]     App.    $1.50. 
H.  W.  Longfellow.    Hiawatha.     (Poem.)    $1.00. 


300  BOOKS   FOE   COLLATERAL  BEADING 

Thos.  Bulfinch.     Legends  of  Charlemagne.     L.  &  S.     $3.00. 
Id.     The  Age  of  Chivalry.     [King  Arthur.]     $2.50. 

C.  H.  Hanson.     Stories  of  the  Days  of  King  Arthur.     L.    Nelson. 
$1.50. 

S.  Lanier.     The  Boys'  King  Arthur.     Scr.     $3.00. 
Id.     The  Boys'  Mabinogion.     Scr.     $3.00. 
Admirable  collections  of  old  legends. 

/.  if  W.  Grimm.     German  Popular  Tales.     Macm.     $2.00. 

G.  W.  Dasent.     Popular  Tales  from  the  Norse.     Ed.     Edmonston. 
$2.50. 

A.  §*  E.  Keary.     Heroes  of  Asgard.     Macm.     $1.00. 
W.  Wagner.     Asgard  and  the  Gods.     Lip.     $2.50. 

Id.     Epics  and  Romances  of  the  Middle  Ages.     Lip.     $2.50. 
Interesting  and  handsomely  illustrated  works. 

H.  W.  Mabie.     Norse  Stories  retold  from  the  Edda.     R.     $1.00. 
R.  B.  Anderson.    Viking  Tales  of  the  North.    Ch.    Griggs.    $2.00. 

Miss  A.  A.  Woodward  \_Auber  Forestier~\.     Echoes  from  Mist-land. 
Ch.     Griggs.     $1.50. 

A  pleasing  presentation  of  the  story  of  the  Nibelungs. 

Jos.  Baldwin.     The  Story  of  Siegfried.     Scr.     $3.00. 
Id.     The  Story  of  Roland.     Scr.     $2.00. 
F.  Mallet.     Northern  Antiquities.     Bell.     $2.00. 
An  old  but  valuable  work. 

Sir  G.  W.  Cox  and  E.  H.  Jones.     Popular  Romances  of  the  Middle 
Ages.     Holt.     $2.25. 

A  valuable  collection  of  legends. 
S.  Baring  Gould.    Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages.    Lip.  $2.50 


IN  CONNECTION   WITH   CLASS   WORK.  301 

4.  TALES  ILLUSTRATING  HISTORY. 

Miss  Yonge.   Historical  Dramas  [at  several  epochs]. 

Is. 
Mrs.  Charles.     Early  Dawn.     [A  series,  covering 

several  centuries.]     $1.00. 
10th  century.  —  Miss  Yonge.  The  Little  Duke  [Richard  the  Fearless]. 

$1.25. 

Crake.    Edwy  the  Fair.     Soc.    $1.00. 
llth  century.  —  Id.    Alf gar  the  Dane.    Soc.    $1.00. 
Id.    The  Rival  Heirs.     Soc.    $1.00. 
Id.    TheAndreds-weald.  [Norman  conquest.]  $1.00. 
Edgar.     Danes,  Saxons,  and  Normans.     $3.00. 
12th  century.  —  Ballantyne.     Erling  the  Bold.     [Iceland.]    $1.25. 
13th  century.  —  Edgar.     How  I  Won  my  Spurs.     $3.00. 

Miss  Yonge.   Prince  and  Page.   [Edward  I.]  $1.25. 
14th  century.  —  Miss  A  guitar.     Days  of  Bruce.     $1.00. 

Miss  Yonge.     Lances  of  Linwood.     [Edward  III.] 

75  cents. 
15th  century. — Miss  Yonge.    Caged  Lion.    [James  I.  of  Scotland.] 

$1.25. 

Howitt.     Jack  of  the  Mill.     [Henry  V.]    $1.75. 
Edgar.    War  of  the  Roses.     $1.20. 
Miss  Yonge.  Dove  in  the  Eagle's  Nest.  [Maximilian.] 
$1.00. 

Miss  Aguilar.     Vale  of  Cedars.    $1.00. 
16th  century.  —  Mrs.  Charles.   Schonberg-Cotta  Family.   [Luther.] 

$1.00. 
Miss  Manning.    Household  of  Sir  Thomas  Moore. 

$1.00. 

Id.    The  Faire  Gospeller.     $1.00. 
Id.   Colloquies  of  Edward  Osborne.   [Edward  VI.J 

75  cents. 


302  BOOKS   FOR   COLLATERAL  READING. 

16th  century. — Miss  Manning.      Good  Old  Times.      [Auvergne, 
1549.]     7s.  6d. 

Mrs.  Charles.  The  Martyrs  of  Spain.  [1561.]  ) 

>  $1.25. 
Id.     The  Liberators  of  Holland.  ) 

MissYonye.  Chaplet of  Pearls.  [Charles  IX.]  $1.50. 

Id.   Unknown  to  History.    [Mary  Queen  of  Scots.] 

$1.50. 
17th  century. — Marry  at.     Children  of  the  New  Forest.    $1.25. 

Mrs.  Davis.     Diary  of  Lady  Willoughby.    $3.00. 

Miss  Manning.    Married  and  Maiden  Life  of  Mary 
Powell  [wife  of  John  Milton].     $1.00. 

Macdonald.    St.  George  and  St.  Michael.    $1.50. 

Mrs.  Charles.  The  Draytons  and  Davenants.  $1.00. 

Id.  On  Both  Sides  of  the  Sea  [continuation].  $1.00. 

Miss  Manning.     Cherry  and  Violet.     $1.00. 

Id.  Deborah's  Diary.    Is. 

Id.  Jacques  Bonneval.  [The  Dragonnades.]  75  cts. 

Henty.    The  Cornet  of  Horse.    $1.50. 
18th  century.  —  Mrs.  Charles.  Diary  of  Mrs.  Kitty  Trevylyan.  $1.00. 

Miss  Manning.     Old  Chelsea  Bun-house.     Is. 

Miss  Martineau.  Peasant  and  Prince.  [Louis  XVII.] 
50  cents. 

Miss  Tytler.     Citoyenne  Jacqueline.     $2.00. 

Mrs.  Charles.   Against  the  Stream.    [Wilberforce.] 

$1.00. 
19th  century. — Miss  Yonge.    Kenneth.    $1.00. 

Henty.     The  Young  Buglers.     [Peninsular  war.] 
$2.25. 

Miss  Manning.    The  Year  Nine.    [Andreas  Hofer.] 


PART  III. 

SCHOOL  TEXT-BOOKS. 
1.  •  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

A  Briif  History  of  Ancient  ($  1.17),  Mediaeval,  and  Modern  Peoples 
($1.17).     N.Y.     Barnes. 

Especially  good  iu  the  history  of  civilization. 

J.  J.  Anderson.    New  General  History:  1.  Ancient, $1.20 ;  2.  Medi- 
aeval and  Modern,  $1.38.    N.Y.   Clark  &  Maynard.   In  1  v.,  $1.92. 

Distinguished  for  clearness  and  accuracy. 

Miss  M.  E.  Thalheimer.     An  Outline  of  General  History.     Cincin- 
nati.    Van  Antwerp.     $1.40. 

Illustrated  with  excellent  maps. 
W.  Swinton.     Outlines  of  History.     N.Y.     Ivison.     $1.66. 

A  book  of  much  practical  merit. 
Marcius  Willson.     Outlines  of  History.     N.Y.     Ivison.    $1.66  and 

$2.49. 

A  work  of  solid  merit,  but  rather  heavy. 

Miss  Emma  Willard.     Universal  History.     N.Y.     Barnes.     $1.87. 

Entertaining  in  style,  but  diffuse. 

S.  G.  Goodrich  [Peter  Parley].     Pictorial  History  of  the  World. 
Ph.     Butler.     $1.46. 

Particularly  suited  to  young  children. 

M.  J.  Kerney.     Compendium   of  Ancient  and  Modern   History. 
Baltimore.     Murphy.     $1.25. 

A  Catholic  work  of  merit ;  in  too  fine  type. 

George  Weber.     Outlines  of  Universal  History.     B.    Ware.    $2.00. 
A  full  and  valuable  compendium,  but  dry  and  badly  translated. 
R.  H.  Labberton.     Outlines  of  History,  $2.00.  —  Questions  on  His- 
tory, $1.75.— Historical  Atlas.     N.Y.     MacCoun.     $1.50. 

An  original  and  admirable  method  of  instruction,  but  too  extep 
sive  for  most  schoo's. 


304  SCHOOL   TEXT-BOOKS. 

Id.    Historical  Chart;  or,  History  Taught  by  the  Eye. 

A  wall-chart ;  very  useful  for  instruction  in  dynastic  history. 
A.  S.  Lyman.     Historical  Chart.     Van  Antwerp  &  Co.     $3.50. 

A  useful  chart  for  reference;  not  accurate  in  all  details. 
W.  F.  Collier.     Great  Events  of  History.     N.Y.     Barnes.     $1.40. 

An  excellent  outline,  but  in  too  fine  type. 
A.  Oilman.     First  Steps  in  General  History.     Barnes.     $1.25. 

A  short  and  agreeable  outline. 

E.  A.  Freeman.     History  Primer  of  Europe.     App.     45  cents. 
Carl  Ploetz.     Epitome  of  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  Modern  History. 
Houghton.     $3.00. 

A  very  full  and  accurate  book  of  reference,  excellently  trans 

lated,  and  with  valuable  additions. 


2.   ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Miss  M.   E.    Thalheimer.      Ancient  History.      Cincinnati.     Van 

Antwerp  &  Co.     $1.87. 

An  excellent  work,  but  too  large  for  most  schools. 
R.  F.  Pennell.     Ancient  Greece.     B.     Allyn.     60  cents. 
Id.     Rome.     B.     Allyn.     60  cents. 

Good  and  accurate  compendiums. 
History  Primers.     Edited  by  J.  R.  Green.     App.     Each,  45  cents, 

Greece.     By  C.  A.  Fyffe. 

Rome.     By  M.  CreigJiton. 

Classical  Geography.     By  H.  F.  Tozer. 

Old  Greek  Life.     By  J.  P.  Mahaffy. 

Roman  Antiquities.     By  A .  S.  Wilkins. 
E.  Abbott.     Skeleton  Outline  of  Greek  History.     Rivingtons. 

P.  E.  Matheson.     Skeleton  Outline  of  Roman  History.    Rivingtons. 
..„,  Contain  very  useful  chronological  and  other  tables. 

O.  Seeman.     Mythology  of  Greece  and  Rome.     H.     60  cents. 
E.  M.  Berens.     Myths   and   Legends   of   Ancient   Greece.     N.Y. 
Clark  &  Maynard.     $1.08. 

Seeman's  is  best  in  connection  with  the  history  of  art;  Berens', 

for  interest  of  narrative. 


SCHOOL   TEXT-BOOKS.  305 

Classical  Atlas.     B.     Ginn,  Heath,  &  Co.     $2.30. 

Student's  Atlas  of  Classical  Geography.     Put.    $1.50. 

Johnston's  Wall-maps  of  Classical  and  Scriptural  Geography.     B. 

Ginn,  Heath,  &  Co.     10  maps,  $4.00  each. 
Guyot's  Classical  Wall-maps.     Scr.     3  maps,  $35.00. 


3.  MODERN  HISTORY. 
Miss  M.  E.  Thalheimer.     Mediaeval  and  Modern  History.    $1.87. 

Id.     History  of  England.     $1.17. 

The  best  history  of  England  for  common  schools. 

7.  /.  Anderson.     A  Short  Course  in  English  History.    N.Y.    Clark 
&  Maynard.    $1.08. 

A  good  and  accurate  compendium. 
David  Morris.     Class-book  History  of  England.     App.    $1.25. 

A  larger  work,  also  excellent;  well  illustrated. 
Miss  Annie  Wall.     History  of  England.    St.  Louis.    Jones.    $1.00. 

A  good  short  work. 
E.  M.  Lancaster.    Manual  of  English  History.  N.Y.  Barnes.  $1.17. 

Well  written,  and  provided  with  good  apparatus. 
W.  M.  Lupton.     Concise  English  History.     R.     $1.50. 

Crowded  with  names  and  dates ;  very  useful  for  reference. 
Mrs.  Markham.     History  of  England.     App.     $1.30. 

A  well-known  English  school-book. 
Brief  History  of  France.     N.Y.     Barnes.    $1.17. 

A  book  of  great  merit. 
/.  Michelet.     Modern  History.     Macm.     $1.10. 

Excellent,  but  too  crowded  with  names  and  dates. 
Students'  Atlas  of  Historical  Geography.     Put.    $1.50. 
C.  S.  Halsey.     Chronological  and  Genealogical  Chart  of  the  Rulers 
of  England,  Scotland,  France,  and  Germany.    B.    Ginn,  Heath, 
&  Co.    25  cents. 

There  are  no  wall-maps  of  Modern  History,  except  the  German 
ones  of  Bretschneider. 


306  SCHOOL   TEXT-BOOKS. 

4.  AMEKICAN  HISTORY. 

Marcius   Willson.     History   of  the  United  States.     N.Y.     Ivison. 
$1.25. 

Emma   Willard.     History  of  the  United   States.     N.Y.     Barnes. 
88  cents. 

These  two  books  have  the  same  qualities  as  the  general  histories 
of  the  same  authors. 

D.  B.  Scott.     School  History  of  the  United  States.     H.    80  cents. 
Excellent,  especially  for  arrangement. 

/.  C.  Ridpath.     History  of  the  United  States.    Cincinnati.    Jones. 
$1.00,  $1.50,  $3.00. 

Illustrated  with  serviceable  diagrams. 

J.  J.  Anderson.     Popular   School  History  of  the  United  States. 
N.Y.     Clark  &  Maynard.    $1.44. 

Containing  a  large  number  of  illustrative  extracts  from  differ- 
ent authors. 

C.  A.  Goodrich.     History  of  the  United  States  of  America.     B. 
Ware.     $1.30. 

Well  adapted  to  memoriter  recitations. 

B.  J.  Lossing.    Outline  History  of  the  United  States.     N.Y.    Shel- 
don.   $1.11. 

Entertaining  and  well  illustrated;  too  crowded  with  detail. 
G.  P.  Quackenbos.     Illustrated  School  History  of  the  United  States. 
App.     $1.25. 

Very  well  written,  but  poorly  arranged. 

Miss  M.  E.  Thalheimer.     Eclectic  History  of  the  United  States. 
Cincinnati.     Van  Antwerp.     $1.17. 

With  very  good  maps  and  illustrations. 

Excelsior   Studies  in   the   History  of  the  United   States.     N.Y. 
Sadlier.    $1.25. 

A  Catholic  work;  also  has  excellent  maps. 

A.  H.  Stephens.     Compendium  of  the  History  of  the  United  States, 
N.Y.    Hale.    $1.50. 

From  a  Southern  point  of  view. 
/.  W.  Leeds.     History  of  the  United  States  of  America.   Lip.  $1.54 


SCHOOL  TEXT-BOOKS.  307 

H.  E.  Scudder.     History  of  the  United  States  of  America.     Ph. 
Butler. 

These  two  books  are  especially  valuable  in  the  history  of  civili- 
zation. Leeds  is  from  a  Quaker  point  of  view;  Scudder  is 
beautifully  illustrated. 

L.  J.  Campbell.     Concise  School  History  of  the  United  States.    B. 
Ware.     87  cents. 

Based  upon  the  work  of  C.  A.  Goodrich. 

W.  Swinton.     Condensed   School   History  of  the  United  States. 
N.Y.     Ivison. 


A  brief  skeleton  of  events. 

/.  C.  Martindale.     History  of  the  United  States.     Ph.     Eldredge. 
$1.17. 

Of  the  same  general  character. 

Primer  of  United  States  History.    N.Y.    Armstrong.    60  cents. 

With  very  good  historical  maps. 

E.  Abbott.    Paragraph  History  of  the  United  States.    R.    50  cents. 
Id.   Paragraph  History  of  the  American  Revolution.    R.    50  cents. 

See  also  Doyle  (p.  282),  Higginson,  and  others  (p.  298). 


The  following  are  for  younger  scholars : — 

Brief  History  of  the  United  States.     N.Y.     Barnes.    $1.17. 
Well  arranged  and  written. 

W.  H.  Vendble.     History  of  the  United  States.     Cincinnati.     Van 
Antwerp  &  Co.     $1.00. 

A  good  book,  with  excellent  maps. 

A.  B.  Berard.     School  History  of  the  United  States.    Ph.     Cow- 
perthwait.     $1.10. 

A  book  of  great  merit,  written  in  an  interesting  style. 
S.  G.  Goodrich.     Pictorial   History   of  the   United  States.      Ph. 
Butler.    $1.46. 

Entertaining,  but  badly  arranged. 


308  SCHOOL   TEXT-BOOKS. 

One  Thousand  Questions  in  American  History.    Syracuse.  Bardeen. 

A  useful  aid  to  teachers. 

R.  Blanchard.     Historical  map  of  the  United  States.     Ch. 
W.  R.  Houghton.     Wall-chart  of  United  States  History. 
Id.   Conspectus  of  the  History  of  Political  Parties. 

An  ingenious  diagram,  containing  much  information. 

/.  J.  Anderson.     United  States  Reader.     N.Y.     Clark  &  Maynard. 
$1.30. 

Well  selected  extracts  from  historians,  poets,  and  orators,  illus- 
trating the  history  of  the  United  States. 

L.  H.  Porter.     Outlines  of  the  Constitutional  History  of  the  United 
States.     Holt.     $1.50. 

Contains  many  valuable  and  interesting  documents. 


SUPPLEMENT. 


CONTAINING  ADDITIONAL  BOOKS,  CHIEFLY  FRENCH  AND  GERMAN,  OR  WORKS  PUB 
1.1-  UE  I)  SINCE  THE  EARLIER  LIST,  ARRANGED  UNDER  THE  SAME  HEADS. 


PART   I. 

HISTORICAL   LITERATURE   AND   AUTHORITIES. 
1.  PRIMITIVE  SOCIETY. 

D .  G.  Brinton.     Library  of  Aboriginal  American  Literature.     Ph. 
[Published  by  the  editor.] 

Invaluable  for  the  study  of  native  institutions  and  religion  ; 
three  volumes  already  published  :  1.  Chronicles  of  the  Mayas; 
2.  Iroquois  Book  of  Rites ;  3.  The  Comedy-ballet  of  Guegence. 

Capt.  J.  C.  Bourke.     The  Snake  Dance  of  the  Moquis  of  Arizona. 
Scr.    $5.00. 

An  important  contribution  to  the  study  of  native  Indian  insti- 
tutions. 

/.  G.  Wood.    The  Uncivilized  Races  of  Men  in  all  Countries  of  the 
World.     Hartford.     Burr.     83.50. 

A  very  valuable  collection  of  facts. 

See  also  article  upon  the  Zufiis,  by  F.  H.  Gushing,  in  the  Century 
for  1883. 

2.  MYTHOLOGY. 

W.  H.  Roscher.    Ausfiihrliches  Lexicon  der  griechischen  und  rom- 
ischen  Mythologie.     Lp.     Teubner. 

Appearing  in  parts. 
C.  G.  Leland.  The  Algonquin  Legends  of  New  England.  Houghton. 


810  SUPPLEMENT. 

Ethnic  Religions. 

Albert  Reville.  The  Native  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru.  [Hibbert 
Lecture.  1884.]  Scr.  $1.00. 

James  Freeman  Clarke.  Ten  Great  Religions.  Part  II. :  A  con) 
parison  of  all  religions.  Houghton. 

3.  HISTORY  OP  SOCIETY. 

W.  E.  H.  Lecky.  History  of  European  Morals  from  Augustut  x> 
Charlemagne.  2  v.  App. 

K.  T.  v.  Inama-Sternegg.    Deutsche  Wirthschaftsgeschichte.  Vol.  I. : 

Zum  Schluss  der  Karolingerperiode.    Lp.    Duncker  &  Humblot. 

The  first  complete  study  of  economic  phenomena  for  this  period. 

E.  Bonnemere.  Histoire  des  Paysans.  2  v.  P.  Sandon  et  Fisch 
bacher. 

Extends  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  Revolution. 

C.  Dareste  de  la  Chavanne.  Histoire  des  classes  agricoles  en  France. 
P.  Guillaumin. 

Henri  Doniol.  Histoire  des  classes  rurales  en  France.  P.  Guiillaumin. 
La  Chavanne  is  most  complete  for  the  middle  ages,  i;oniol  for 
the  modern  period. 

Samuel  Sugenheim.  Geschichte  der  Aufhebung  der  Leibeijenschaft 
und  Horigkeit  in  Europa.  Lp.  Voss. 

The  best  work  upon  serfdom  and  its  abolition. 

J.  E.  T.  Rogers.     Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages,     i  dt. 

A  history  of  the  English  laboring  classes,  based  upou  »n  exhaus- 
tive study  of  economic  facts. 

Toulmin  Smith.  English  Gilds  :  with  Introduction  upon  ti  2  History, 
etc.,  of  Gilds,  by  Lujo  Brentano  [which  can  be  had  separate]. 
Early  English  Text  Society.  L. 

G.  Fagniez.     Etudes  sur  1'industrie  et  la  classe  industritsJe  a  Paris 

au  xiiie  et  au  xive  siecle.     P.     Viewig. 
W.  Stieda.     Zur  Entstehung  des  deutschen  Zunftwesens.     Jena. 

Dufft. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      311 

G.  Schanz.  Zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Gesellenverbande  im 
Mittelalter.  Lp.  Duncker  &  Humblot. 

These  ten  works,  selected  from  a  large  literature,  give  a  toler- 
ably complete  view  of  the  industrial  classes  in  the  middle  ages. 

4.  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

W.  Assmann.  Handbuch  der  allgemeinen  Geschichte.  5  v. 
Braunschweig.  Vieweg. 

Valuable  for  its  references  to  authorities ;  especially  full  for  the 
middle  ages. 

Georg  Weber,     Allgemeine  Geschichte  fiir  die  gebildeten  Stande. 

14  v. 

The  best  complete  universal  history.    The  "Lehrbuch,"  by  the 
same  author,  is  regarded  as  the  best  German  text-book. 
W.  Oncken.     Allgemeine  Geschichte  in  Einzeldarstellungen. 

The  following  works  have  been  added :  F.  Justi,  Geschichte  des 
alten  Persiens.  B.  Kugler,  Geschichte  der  Kreuzziige.  S.  Ruge, 
Zeitalter  der  Entdeckungen.  L.  Geiger,  Renaissance  und  Hu- 
manismus.  A.  Bruckner,  Katharina  die  Zweite. 

F.  Laurent.  Etudes  sur  1'Histoire  de  1'Humanite.  18  v.  Braxelles. 
A  series  of  monographs.  Probably  the  most  suggestive  general 
history. 

C.  G.  Wheeler.     The  Course  of  Empire.     O. 

A  brief  summary  of  history  by  centuries,  with  abundant  selec- 
tions ;  an  outline  map  for  each  century. 

L.  Weisser.  Bilderatlas  zur  Weltgeschichte.  Stuttgart.  Neff. 
50  numbers  at  50  pf.  =  $6.50. 

A  very  large  and  useful  collection  of  historical  illustrations  ;  of 
unequal  value. 

5.  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

A.  Baumeister.  Deukmaler  des  Klassischen  Alterthums  zur  Erlau- 
terung  des  Lebens  der  Griechen  und  Romer  in  Religion,  Kunst 
und  Sitte:  lexikalisch  bearbeitet.  R.  Oldenbourg.  Miinchen. 
40  numbers  at  1  mark  =  f  10.00. 

H.  A.  Wallon.  Histoire  de  PEsclavage  dans  PAntiquite*.  3  v.  P. 
The  only  complete  treatise  upon  the  subject. 


312  SUPPLEMENT. 

W.  C.  Wilkinson.     Preparatory  Latin  Course  in  English;  College 

Greek  Course ;  College  Latin  Course.     Phillips  &  Hunt. 
Quellenbuch  zur  alten  Geschichte.     Lp.     Teubner.     2  v.     1.  Grie- 
chische  Geschichte.     2.  Rbmische  Geschichte. 

Contains  all  the  important  authorities  on  classical  history,  in 
selections,  chronologically  arranged. 

6.  ORIENTAL  HISTORY. 

A.  H.  Sayce.     The  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East.     Scr. 

A  compendious  statement  of  the  present  condition  of  knowledge. 
G.  Rawlinson.     Ancient  Empires  of  the  East.     Student's  edition. 
5  v.    Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co.    $6.25. 

7.  HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 

G.  Gilbert.     Handbuch  der  griechischen  Staatsalterthiimer.     Lp. 

Teubner. 

The  best  compendium  of  the  subject. 
K.  Fr.  Hermann.     Lehrbuch  der  griechischen  Antiquitaten.    4  vol. 

Staats-,   Gottesdienstliche-  und  Privatalterthiimer.      Freiburg. 

Mohr. 

The  standard  work  ;  a  revised  edition  has  been  published. 

E.  Kuhn.     Ueber  die  Entstehung  der  Stadte  der  Alten.     Komen- 
verfassung  und  Synoikismos.     Lp.     Teubner. 

The  best  treatise  upon  the  formation  of  political  communities 
among  the  Greeks. 

8.  ROMAN  HISTORY. 

G.  Boissier.     Cice"ron  et  ses  Amis.     P. 

Id.     La  Religion  romaine  d'Auguste  aux  Antonins.    2  v.    P. 

P.  B.  Watson.     Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus.     H. 

An  able  and  scholarly  production. 
L.  Friedlander.   Darstellungen  aus  der  Sittengeschichte  Roms.  3  v. 

Lp.     Hirzel. 
H.  Schiller.      Geschichte  des  romischen   Kaisserreichs  unter   der 

Regierung  des  Sero.     tfer.     \Veiamanw 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      313 

J.  N.  Madvig.    Verfassung  und  Verwaltung  des  romischen  Staates. 
2  v.     Lp.     Teubner. 

P.  Willems.     Le  Droit  public  remain.     Louvain. 

These  are  the  two  best  compendiums  of  Roman  antiquities. 
E.  Kuhn.     Die  stadtische  und  biirgerliche  Verfassung  des  romis- 
chen Reichs  bis  auf  die  Zeiten  Justinians.    2  v.   Lp.    Teubner. 

R.  J.  A.  Houdoy.     Le  Droit  Municipal.     P.     1876. 

These  two  works  treat  of  the  municipal  constitution  :  Kuhn 
from  an  historical,  Houdoy  from  a  legal  point  of  view. 

/.  Beloch.     Der  italische  Bund.     Lp.     Teubner. 

Treats  of  the  relation  of  Rome  to  the  other  Italian  communities. 
B.  Heisterbergk.     Die  Entstehung  des  Colonats.     Lp.     Teubner. 

Discusses  the  subject  from  an  economical  point  of  view. 

E.  C.  Clark.     Early  Roman  Law.     The  Regal  Period.     Macm. 
James  Hadley.     Lectures  on  Roman  Law. 

R.  von  Jhering.      Der   Geist   des   romischen   Rechts.     3  v.     Lp. 
Breitkopf  and  Hartel. 

F.  C.  Savigny.     Geschichte  des  romischen  Rechts  im  Mittelalter. 
7  v.     Heidelberg. 

Orelli  and  Henzen.     Inscriptionum  Latinarum  selectarum  ampli- 
sima  collectio.     3  v.     Turici  [Zurich]. 

9.  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

M.  A.  Geffroy.     Rome  et  les  barbares.     P.     Didier. 

A  study  upon  the  Germania  of  Tacitus. 
Charles  Kingsley.     The  Roman  and  the  Teuton.     Macm. 

An  interesting  and  suggestive  course  of  lectures. 

G.  Waitz.    Deutsche  Verfassungs  Geschichte.   8  v.   Kiel.  Homann. 

The  great  standard  work  upon  German  constitutional  history, 
reaching  the  twelfth  century. 

P.  Roth.     Geschichte  des  Beneficialwesens.     Erlangen.     Palm. 

The  most  important  work  for  the  beginnings  of  Feudalism. 
R.  Sohm.     Altdeutsche  Reichs  und  Gerichtsverfassung.     Weimar. 
Bohlau. 

Treats  of  the  constitution  of  the  Frank  Empire. 


314  SUPPLEMENT. 

P.  E.  Fahlbeck.     La  royaute*  et  le  droit  royal  francs.     Lund. 

The  best  sketch  of  the  constitutional  history  of  the  early  Mero. 
vingian  period;  agrees  essentially  with  Sohm. 

E.  Secretan.     Essai  sur  la  Feodalite".     Lausanne. 

The  most  complete  description  of  the  Feudal  System. 
H.  G.  Gengler.     Germanische  Rechtsdenkmaler.     Erlangen.     Dei- 
chert. 

A  collection  of  illustrative  extracts  from  documents,  with  a 

good  introduction. 

Id.   Deutsche  Stadtrechts  Alterthiimer.     Erlangen.     Deichert. 
A.  Heusler.     Der  Ursprung  der  deutschen  Stadtverfassung.    Wei- 
mar.    Bbhlau. 

The  best  single  treatise  of  a  general  nature.    The  best  special 

work  is  perhaps: 

C.  Hegel.     Verfassungsgeschichte  von  Coin  im  Mittelalter.     Lp. 
Hirzel. 

A.  Wauters.     Les  liberte's  communales.     Bruxelles.     Lebegue. 

Treats  of  municipal  institutions  in  northern  France  and  Belgium. 
A.  Kremer.  Culturgeschichte  des  Orients  unter  den  Chalifen.  2v. 
Vienna. 

The  best  history  of  Mohammedan  civilization. 

10.   ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY. 

Count  de  Montalembert.     The  Monks  of  the  West :  from  St.  Bene- 
dict to  St.  Bernard.     7  v.     Ed.     Blackwood. 

The  best  history  of  monasticism. 
A.  H.  Wratislaw.     John  Hus.     Soc. 

Julius  Kostlin.     Life  of  Martin  Luther.     Scr. 

The  best  popular  life  of  Luther ;  with  contemporary  illustrations. 
E.  D.  Mead.    Martin  Luther :  A  Study  of  Reformation.   B.    Ellis. 
W.  Smith.     Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography.     3  v.     Murray. 
Id.     Dictionary  of   Christian   Antiquities.     2  v.      Murray   [also 
Hartford.     Burr.    $7.00]. 

S.  E.  Herrick.     Some  Heretics  of  Yesterday.     Houghton. 
Popular  lectures ;  extend  from  Tanler  to  Wesley. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      316 

11.  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND,  ETC. 

/.  R.  Green.     The  Conquest  of  England.     H. 

Properly  a  continuation  of  "the  Making  of  England,"  com- 
pleting the  history  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period. 

/.  R.  Seeley.     The  Expansion  of  England.     R. 

Two  courses  of  lectures  of  remarkable  suggestiveness. 

Coote.     The  Romans  in  Britain. 

Devoted  to  establishing  the  survival  of  Roman  institutions,  etc. 

H.  M.  Scarth.     Roman  Britain.     Soc. 

William  Hunt.     Norman  Britain.     Soc. 
Two  valuable  short  treatises. 

J.  S.  Brewer.     The  Reign  of  Henry  VIII.     2  v.     812.00. 

Papers  written  during  the  work  of  editing  the  documents  be- 
longing to  this  reign. 

P.  Friedmann.      Anne  Boleyn :    A  Chapter  of  English  History. 
1527-1536.     2  v.     Macm. 

S.  R.  Gardiner.     History  of  England.    1603-1642.     10  v.    Longm. 

A  revised  and  cheaper  edition  of  his  great  work. 
/.  McCarthy.    A  History  of  the  Four  Georges.    Vol.  I.    H.    $1.25. 

Reaches  the  year  1729. 
Id.    Short  History  of  Our  Own  Times.     H. 

An  abridgment  of  his  larger  work. 
J.  H.  McCarthy.     Outline  of  Irish  History.     Baltimore.     Murphy. 

Particularly  good  for  the  nineteenth  century. 

Edw.  Smith.     Story  of  the  English  Jacobins.     C. 

A  popular  account  of  the  treason  trials,  etc.,  at  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

R.  B.  Smith.     Life  of  Lord  Lawrence.     2  v.     Scr. 

R.  Schmidt.    Die  Gesetze  der  Angelsachsen.     Lp.     Brockhaus. 

The  best  edition  of  these  laws,  with  a  glossary. 
A.  S.  Cook.     Extracts  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  Laws.     Holt. 

The  most  important  passages,  in  the  original. 

W.  Stubbs.     Select  Charters:   Documents  Illustrative  of  English 
History.     Macm. 

A  valuable  selection  of  documents,  with  introduction;  extends 

to  Edward  I. 


316  SUPPLEMENT. 

K.  E.  Digby.  Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Law  of  Real 
Property. 

An  excellent  treatise,  with  illustrative  documents. 

F.  Pollock.     The  Land  Laws.    Macm. 

A  good  short  history  of  these  laws. 

12.  HISTORY  OF  FRANCE. 

L.  Hdusser.     Geschichte  der  franzosischen  Revolution.     Ber. 
A  course  of  lectures  reported  stenographically. 

A.  Schmidt.     Tableaux  de  la  Revolution  Fra^aise. 

A  valuahle  collection  of  documents,  presenting  a  vivid  picture 
of  society  during  the  revolution. 

/.  F.  Crane  and  S.  J.  Brun.    Tableaux  de  la  Revolution  Fra^aise. 

Put. 

An  historical  French  reader.    With  an  introduction  by  Pres. 
A.  D.  White. 

Sarah  Tytler.     Life  of  Marie  Antoinette.     [New  Plutarch.]     Put. 

K.  Hillebrand.     Geschichte  Frankreichs  von  der  Thronbesteigung 
Louis  Philippes  bis  zum  Falle  Napoleons  III.     Gotha. 
The  second  volume  reaches  the  year  1840. 

13.   SPECIAL  HISTORIES. 

Geschichte  der  europaischen  Staaten,  edited  by  Heeren,  Ukert,  and 
Giesebrecht :  Geschichte  der  Teutschen,  by  Poster,  5  v. ;  der 
italienischen  Staaten,  by  Leo,  5  v. ;  des  preussischen  Staates,  by 
Stenzel,  5  v. ;  von  Sachsen,  by  Bottiger,  2  v. ;  von  Spanien,  by 
Lembke  and  Schafer,  3  v. ;  der  Niederlande,  by  van  Kampen,  2  v. ; 
Russian  d,  by  Strahl  and  Herrmann,  7  v. ;  Schwedens,  by  Geijer 
and  Carlson,  4  v. ;  Englands,  by  Lappenberg  and  Pauli,  5  v. ; 
des  osterreichischen  Kaiserstaats,  by  Mailath,  5  v. ;  Portugals, 
by  Schafer,  5  v. ;  Frankreichs,  by  Schmidt,  4  v. ;  von  Danemark, 
by  Dahlmann,  3  v. ;  Frankreichs,  by  Wachsmuth,  4  v. ;  des 
osmanischen  Reichs,  by  Zinkeisen,  8  v. ;  Polens,  by  Ro'pell  and 
Caro,  3  v. ;  Deutschlands  (1806-30),  by  Bulau. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      317 

W.  Arnold.     Deutche  Urzeit.     Gotha,  Perthes. 

A  later  volume  brings  the  history  down  to  the  time  of  Charles 
the  Great.    A  work  of  great  value. 

G.  Kaufmann.     Deutsche  Geschichte  bis  auf  Karl  den  Grossen. 
2  v.     Lp.     Duncker  &  Humblot. 

An  excellent  compendium  of  the  present  condition  of  knowledge . 
W.  von  Giesebrecht.     Geschichte   der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit.      5  v. 
Braunschweig.     Schwetschke. 

The  best  history  of  the  empire;  reaches  the  twelfth  century. 
F.  von  Raumer.    Geschichte  der  Hohenstaufen  und  ihrer  Zeit.    6  v. 

A  standard  work  of  great  literary  merit. 

Konrad  Maurer.     Island  von  seiner  ersten  Entdeckung  bis  zum 
Untergange  des  Freistaates.     Miinchen. 

By  far  the  most  valuable  work  upon  the  history  of  Iceland. 
O.  Lorenz.     Deutschlands  Geschichtsquellen  im  Mittelalter.     2  v. 

Ber.     Hertz. 

C.  Muller.    Der  Kampf  Ludwig  des  Baiern   mit  der  rdmischen 
Curie.     2  v.     Tubingen. 

E.  Werunsky.      Geschichte  Kaiser    Karls  IV.   und  seiner   Zeit. 
Innsbruck. 

T.  Lindner.     Geschichte  des  deutschen  Reiches  unter  Kbnig  Wen- 
zel.     3  v.     Braunschweig. 

F.  Krones.     Handbuch  der  Geschichte  Oesterreichs.     3  v.     Ber. 
Grieben. 

F.  Palacky.    Geschichte  v.  Bb'hmen.   4  v.  (in  several  parts).   Prag. 

By  the  great  Bohemian  historian;  the  German  view  is  given  by 
L.  Schlesinger.     Geschichte  Bohmens.     Lp.     Brockhaus. 
L.  von  Szalay.     Geschichte  Ungarns.     3  v.     Pest.     Lauffer. 

Reaches  the  close  of  the  middle  ages ;  a  brief  complete  history  is 
M.  Horvath.     Kurzgefasste  Geschichte  Ungarns.     Buda-Pest. 

Both  of  these  are  Hungarian  works.    The  German  view  will  be 

found  in 
/.  A.  Fessler.     Geschichte  von  Ungarn.     5  v. 

B.  von  Kdllay.    Geschichte  der  Serben.    2  v.    Buda-Pest.    Lauffer. 
A  good  history  of  this  important  Slavonic  people. 


318  SUPPLEMENT. 

Jos.  von  Hammer.   Geschichte  des  osmanischen  Reiches.  8v.  Pesth. 

The  highest  authority  upon  this  history. 
Vulliemin.     Histoire  de  la  Suisse. 

The  best  history  of  Switzerland. 

F.  Gregorovius.     Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom  im  Mittelalter.     8  v. 
Stuttgart.     Cotta.    $20.00. 

F.  T.  Perrens.     Histoire  de  Florence.     6  v.     Paris. 

The  most  important  recent  contribution  to  Italian  history. 

G.  Sartorius.  Geschichte  des  hanseatischen  Bundes.  2v.   Gottingen. 

An  old  work,  but  still  the  best  on  the  subject. 

E.  Worms.      Histoire  commerciale  de  la  ligue  hanseatique.     P. 
Guillaumin. 

H.  Tuttle.     History  of  Prussia  to  the  Accession  of  Frederick  the 
Great.     1134-1740.     Houghton. 

An  interesting  and  scholarly  work. 

F.  Eberty.     Geschichte  des  preussischen  Staates.     7  v.    Breslau. 
[to  1871]. 

J.  G.  Droysen.     Geschichte  der  preussischen  Politik.     2  v.     Lp. 
Of  the  highest  historical  merit,  but  strongly  absolutist. 

L.  von  Ranke.     Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Brandenburg.     3  v.     L. 
Chiefly  devoted  to  the  history  of  the  eighteenth  century.    The 
original  work  has  been  completely  revised  and  re-written  under 
the  title  "  Zwolf  Biicher  preussischen  Geschichte." 

C.  F.  v.  Stalin.    Wirtembergische  Geschichte.     4  v.     Stuttgart. 

Cotta. 

Regarded  as  one  of  the  very  best  histories  of  a  single  state. 

A.  Young.     History  of  the  Xetherlands.     E.  &  L. 

A  good  short  history ;  chiefly  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries. 
L.  Vanderkindere.     Le  siecle  des  Artevelde.    Bruxelles.    Lebegue. 
P.  Fredericq.     Le  R61e  politique  et  social  des  dues  de  Bourgogne. 

Gand.     Hoste. 
A.  Gindely.     History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.     3  v. 

A  popular  work  by  the  highest  living  authority. 
John  L.  Stevens.     History  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.     Put. 
Carl  van  Noorden.     Europaische  Geschichte  in  achtzchuten  Jahr- 
hundert :   I.  Der  spanische  Erbfolgekrieg.     3  v.    Dusseldorf. 

The  most  important  work  upon  the  subject, 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      319 

A..  Schafer.     Geschichte  des  siebenjahrigen  Kriegs.     2  v.    B. 

Especially  valuable  in  diplomatic  history. 

C.  B.  Brackenbury.     Frederick  the  Great.     [New  Plutarch.]    Put. 
F.  W.  Longman,     Frederick  the  Great.     [E.S.]     Scr. 
L.  Hausser.    Deutsche  Geschichte  vom  Tode  Friedrichs  des  Grossen 
bis  zur  Griindung  des  deutschen  Bundes.     4  v. 

Learned,  impartial,  and  graphic. 
Eugene  Schuyler.     Peter  the  Great.     Scr. 

An  excellent  work  ;  handsomely  illustrated. 
F.  W.  Horn.   History  of  the  Literature  of  the  Scandinavian  North. 

Ch.  Griggs. 
W.  E.  Griffin.    Corea,  the  Hermit  Nation.     Scr. 

14.   NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Staatengeschichte  der  neuesten  Zeit,  ed.  by  Baumgarten :  France 
(1814-52),  by  Rochau,  2  v.;  England  (since  1814),  by  Pauli,  3 
v.;  Germany  (19th.  century),  by  Treitschke;  Italy  (modern 
period),  by  Reuchlin,  2  v. ;  Spain  (since  French  Revolution), 
by  Baumgarten,  3v.;  Austria  (since  1809),  by  Springer,  2  v. ; 
Greece  (since  1453),  by  Mendelssohn,  2v.;  Turkey  (1826-52), 
by  Rosen,  2  v. ;  Russia  (1814-31),  by  Bernhardi,  3  v. 

Baron  Henry  Worms.  The  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  (since  1866). 
L. 

C.  Bulle.     Geschichte  der  neuesten  Zeit.     1815-71.     2  v.     Lp. 

A  work  of  great  merit. 
Cesare  Cantu.     Les  trente  dernieres  annees.     (1848-78).     P. 

The  work  of  a  Republican  and  Catholic. 

Th.  Juste.    La  Revolution  beige  de  1830.     2  v.     Bruxelles. 
W.  Mutter.    Political  History  of  Recent   Times,  1816-75   (with 
appendix,  1876-81).     H. 

Id.    Politische  Geschichte  der  Gegenwart.     B. 

An  annual  publication  of  great  merit. 
Count  de  Maupas.     Story  of  the  Coup  d'Etat.     App. 

D.  M.  Wallace.     Egypt  and  the  Egyptian  Question.     Mann. 


320  SUPPLEMENT. 

15.   HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Arthur  Oilman.     History  of  the  American  People.    Lothrop.   $1.50. 

C.  C.  Jones.     History  of  Georgia.     Houghton. 

Gives  special  attention  to  the  social  history  of  the  colony. 
American  Commonwealths.     Houghton. 

Oregon,  by  W.  Barrows. 

Maryland,  by  William  Hand  Browne. 

W.  E.  Foster.  Stephen  Hopkins,  a  Rhode  Island  Statesman ;  a 
study  in  the  political  history  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Provi- 
dence. Rider. 

Richard  Markham.  King  Philip's  War  [Lesser  Wars].  Dodd, 
Mead,  &  Co. 

C.  W.  Baird.  History  of  the  Huguenot  Emigration  to  America. 
Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co.  $5.00. 

Works  of  John  Smith.     Birmingham.     Edward  Arber. 

Francis  Parkman.     Montcalm  and  Wolfe.     2  v.     L.  &  B. 

Frederick  Kapp.     Life  of  John  Kalb.     Holt. 

E.  J.  Lowell.  The  Hessians  and  the  other  German  Auxiliaries  of 
Great  Britain  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  H. 

American  Statesmen.     Houghton. 
James  Madison,  by  S.  H.  Gay. 

L.  G.  Tyler.  Letters  and  Times  of  the  Tylers.  Richmond.  Whittet. 

A  series  of  pictures,  from  the  Revolution  to  1861. 
H.  0.  Ladd.     History  of  the  Mexican  War  [Lesser  Wars].     Dodd, 

Mead,  &  Co. 

Mrs.  C.  E.  Cheney.   Young  Folks'  History  of  the  Civil  War.   E.  &  L. 
W.  H.  Seward.     Diplomatic  History  of  the  Civil  War  in  America. 

Houghton.     $3.00. 

Vol.  III.  of  Seward's  Works. 
/.  G.  Elaine.   Twenty  Years  of  Congress,  from  Lincoln  to  Garfield. 

2  v.     Norwich. 
Gen.  E.  D.  Keyes.     Fifty  Years'  Observations  of  Men  and  Events, 

Civil  and  Military.     Scr. 


HISTORICAL  LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORITIES.      321 

T.   V.  Cooper.     American  Politics.     Ch.     Brodix. 
A  valuable  collection  of  facts  and  documents. 

H.    C.  Adams.     Taxation    in    the   United   States.     (1789-1816.) 
Baltimore. 

Johns   Hopkins   University  Studies  in  .Historical    and  Political 
Science.     Edited  by  H.  B.  Adams.     Baltimore. 

Chiefly  devoted  to  the  history  of  American  institutions. 

See  also  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,  in  the  Century, 
1883-04. 


.PART  II. 
BOOKS  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING. 

Sir  G.  W.  Cox.     Tales  of  Ancient  Greece.     Ch.     Jansen. 
Miss  Beesly.     Stories  from  the  History  of  Rome.     Macm. 

A.  J.  Church.     Stories  of  the  Old  World.     Ginn,  Heath,  &  Co. 

A  selection  from  the  several  collections  of  classical  tales. 
Id.    Stories  of  the  Persian  War.     Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co. 
Id.   Roman  Life  in  Days  of  Cicero.     Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co. 
/.  S.  White.    Herodotus  for  Boys  and  Girls.     Put. 
Id.    Plutarch  for  Boys  and  Girls.     Put. 
Rosalie  Kaufmann.     Our  Young  Folks'  Plutarch.     Lip. 
W.  Shepard.     Our  Young  Folks'  Josephus.     Lip.     $2.50. 
R.  Markham.     Chronicle  of  the  Cid.     Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co. 
E.  C.  Kindersley.   History  of  the  Good  Knight,  the  Lord  de  Bayard. 

Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co. 

These  six  books  are  large  and  handsomely  illustrated. 
H.  C.  H.  Calthrop.     Paladin  and  Saracen  [Tales  from  Ariosto]. 
Helen  Zimmern.     Tales  from  the  Eddas.     L.     Swan. 
Lady  Calcott.    Little  Arthur's  History  of  England.    N.Y.    Crowell. 
Philips'  Historical   Readers.      1.    Stories  from   English   History; 

2.  Early  England;    3.  Middle  England;  4.  Modern  England. 

B.     School  Supply  Co. 

W.  H.  Rideing.     Young  Folks'  History  of  London.     E.  &  L. 
Miss  C.  M.  Yonge.     Aunt  Charlotte's  Stories  of  American  History. 

App. 

E.  E.  Hale.     Stories  of  Discovery,  told  by  Discoverers.    R.    $1.00. 

F.  S.  Drake.     Indian  History  for  Young  Folks.     H.     |3.00. 
Capt.  Charles  King.     Famous  and  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World 

Ph.     McCurdy. 


HISTOET    TOPICS. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

L  ORIENTAL  PERIOD,  TO  B.C.  500. 

1.  Egypt  and  Palestine.  —  a.   The  Mediterranean  system  of 
lands,     ft.  The  valley  of  the  Nile  (with  map),     c.  The  early  empire ; 
the  4th  and  12th  dynasties,     d.   The  Hyksos.     e.  The  18th  and 
19th  dynasties.    /.  The  26th  dynasty,     g.  The  Hebrew  monarchy. 
Solomon,  B.C.  1000.    h.  The  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah.  —  f.  The 
exodus  of  the  Israelites,    k.  ^Ethiopia.  —  Map :  The  Mediterranean 
sea ;  the  Orient ;  B.C.  1500. 

2.  The  Orient.  —  a.  The  Chaldean  empire.     6.  The  Assyrian 
empire,     c.  Babylon,     d.  Media,     e.  Asia  Minor ;  the  kingdom  of 
Lydia.     /.    Cyrus;    the  Persian  empire,      g.    Darius  Hystaspes ; 
B.C.  500.     h.  Phoenicia;  Tyre  and  Sidon.  —  i.  Cyprus,     k.  Armenia. 
1.  Cambyses  in  Egypt.  —  Map:  B.C.  650  and  600. 

n.   GRECIAN  PERIOD.    B.C.  500-300. 

3.  Greece.  —  a.  The  geography  and  races  of  Greece.     b.  The 
Greek  colonies,      c.    The   Spartan  hegemony,      d.    The  Persian 
invasion,     e.  The  Athenian  empire ;  the  age  of  Pericles.     /.  The 
Peloponnesian  war.     g.  Epaminondas ;  the  hegemony  of  Thebes. 
h.  Philip  of  Macedon.  —  t.  The  return  of  the  Heraclidae.     k.  The- 
mistocles.     /.   The  battle  of  Marathon ;   of  Salamis ;   of  Leuctra. 
m.  The  peace  of  Antalcidas,  B.C.  387.  —  Map:  Greece;  the  Orient; 
B.C.  500. 

4.  The  Macedonian  Empire.  —  a.  Alexander ;  the  conquest  of 
Persia,     ft.  The  expedition  to  India,     c.  Greece  after  Alexander. 
d.  The  Achaean  league,      e.  The  kingdom  of  Pergamus.     /.  The 
Seleucidae ;   the  kingdom  of  Syria,     g.   The  Ptolemies  hi  Egypt ; 
Lagidae.     h.  The  Parthian  empire;    Arsacidae.  —  t.  The  battle  of 
Ipsus,  B.C.  301.     k.  The  JEtolian  league.     I.  Agis  and  Cleomeues. 
—  Map :  B.C.  275. 


324  HISTORY   TOPICS. 


III.  ROMAN  PERIOD.    B.C.  300  TO  CHRISTIAN  ERA. 

5.  Italy.  —  a.    The  geography  and   races   of   Italy.      b.    The 
Etruscans,     c.  Magna  Graecia.     d.  Rome  under  the  kings,     e.  The 
hegemony  of  Rome  in  Latium.     f.  The  capture  of  Rome  by  the 
Gauls,  B.C.  390.      g.   The  Latin  war,  B.C.  340.     A.  The  Samnite 
wars.     i.  The  war  with  Pyrrhus.  —  k.  The  2Equians  and  Volscians. 
1.   The  conquest  of  Veii.     m.   The  Caudine  Forks;   B.C.  321. — 
Map :  Italy ;  B.C.  500  and  275. 

6.  The  Conquest  of  the  "World.  —  a.  Carthage  and  the  First 
Punic  war.     b.  The  Second  Punic  war ;  Hannibal,     c.  The  Mace- 
donian wars.     d.  The  war  with  Antiochus.     e.   The  conquest  of 
Spain.    /.  The  wars  of  Pompey  in  the  East.     g.  The  conquest  of 
Gaul.      h.    The  Social  war,  B.C.  90.  —  i.    The  battle  of  Cannae ; 
of  Cynoscephalse.     k.  The  Ligurians.     1.  The  Illyrians.     m.  The 
Numidians.     n.  The  Maccabees.  —  Map :  B.C.  200  and  100.    List 
of  the  provinces  in  the  order  of  their  acquisition. 


IV.  ROMAN  EMPIRE.    THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA  TO  A.D.  500. 

7.  The  Early  Empire.  —  a.  The  civil  war  of  Caesar  and  Pompey. 
b.  The  Second  Triumvirate,     c.  Augustus;  the  Empire;  B.C.  27. 
d.  The  wars  with  the  Germans,    e.  The  conquest  of  Britain.   /.  The 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  A.D.  70.    g.  Trajan;  A.D.  100.     h.  Mar- 
cus Aurelius,  d.  180.  —  i.  Relations  with  Parthia.     k.  Mauretania. 
/.   The  defeat  of  Varus  by  Arminius,    A.D.  9.  —  Map :    B.C.  27 ; 
A.D.  14  and  100.     Genealogy  of  the  family  of  Augustus. 

8.  The    Later    Empire.  —  a.    Septimius    Severus ;    A.D.   200. 

b.  Diocletian;   A.D.  300.      c.    Constantino  the  Great,   d.  337.     d, 
Honorius ;   A.D.  400.      e.    The  new  Persian   empire ;    Sassanidse. 
/.  Palymra ;  Zenobia.    g.  The  battle  of  Hadrianople,  378.     h.  The 
Alemanni.  —  t.  Aurelian,  d.  275.     k.  Julian  the  Apostate,  d.  363. 
1.    Theodosius  the   Great,   d.   395.      m.    Constantinople.  —  Map :. 
A.D.  350  and  400. 

9.  The   Migrations  of  the  Barbarians.  —  a.    The  Visigoths 
( West  Goths)  ;  Alaric,  d.  412.     b.  The  Vandals ;  Genseric,  d.  477. 

c.  The  Burgundians.    d.  The  Angles  and  Saxons,    e.  Attila  and 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY.  325 

the  Huns.  /.  Odoacer ;  the  fall  of  the  Empire,  476.  g.  Theodoric 
the  Ostrogoth  (East  Goth),  d.  526.  h.  The  Lombards ;  Alboin,  568. 
—  i.  Stilicho,  d.  408.  k.  The  battle  of  the  Peoples  (Chalons),  451. 
1.  The  Gepidae.  —  Map :  420  and  476.  List  of  the  barbarian  king- 
doms in  the  order  of  their  settlement. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY.      A.D.  500-1500. 
I.  THE  FRANK  PERIOD.    A.D.  500-900. 

10.  The  Merovingian  House.  —  a.  Clovis ;  A.D.  500.     6.  Jus- 
tinian and  his  conquests,      c.    The  Slavs  and  Avars,      d.   Pope 
Gregory  the  Great ;  A.D.  600.     e.  Heraclius,  d.  641.    /.  Mohammed 
and  his  successors,     g.  The  Ommeyades,  661.     h.  Australia  and 
Neustria.    i.  The  hegemony  of  Northumbria. —  k.  Belisarius,  d.  565. 
1.  Penda  of  Mercia,  d.  655.     m.  The  Scots  and  Picts.  —  Map :  510 
and  565. 

11.  The  Carolingian  House;  A.D.  752.  —  a.  Pipin  of  Heristal ; 
A.D.  700.    b.  Leo  the  Isaurian,  d.  741.     c.  The  battle  of  Tours,  732. 
d.  The  kingdom  of  the  Asturias.    e.  The  Abassides,  750.  /.  Charles 
the  Great;  A.D.  800.     g.  The  treaty  of  Verdun,  843.     h.  The  Nor- 
mans,   i.  Alfred  the  Great;  A.D.  900.  —  k.  The  hegemony  of  Mercia. 
I.  Egbert  of  Wessex,  d.  836.     m.  Harold  Haarf  ager,  d.  936.     n.  The 
kingdom  of  Scotland.  —  Map :  A.D.  750  and  843.     Genealogy  of  the 
Carolingian  house. 

n.  PERIOD  OF  GERMAN  ASCENDENCY.     A.D.  900-1250. 

12.  The  Saxon  House;  A.D.  919.  —  a.  Otto  the  Great;  em- 
peror, 962.     b.  The  kingdom  of  Burgundy,    c.  The  Capetian  house, 
987.     d.   St.  Stephen  of  Hungary ;  A.D.  1000.     e.  The  Macedonian 
dynasty,    f.  The  Russian  monarchy,     g.  The  Fatimites  in  Egypt. 
h.  The  Danish  conquest  of  England,  1016.  —  i.  Gorm  the  Old  of 
Denmark,  d.  936.     k.  St.  Olaf  of  Norway.     /.  The  kingdom  of  Bul- 
garia,    m.  The  Saracens  in  Sicily.  —  Map :  A.D.  1000.     Genealogy 
of  the  Saxon  house. 


326  HISTORY   TOPICS. 

13.  The  Franconian  House ;  A.D.1024.  —  a.  Henry IV.  of  Ger- 
many; A.D.  1100.    b.  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  d.  1086.     c.  The  Norman 
conquest  of  England,  1066.     d.  The  Norman  conquests  in  Italy. 
e.  Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile,  and  the  Cid.  /.  The  Almoravides  in  Spain. 
g.  The  Seljukian  Turks,     h.  The  first  crusade,  1096.  —  i.  Sancho 
III.,  the  Great,  of  Navarre,  d.  1035.     k.  The  States  of  North  Africa. 
/.  The  Concordat  of  Worms,  1122.  —  Map :  The  countries  about  the 
Mediterranean;  A.D.  1100.     Genealogy  of  the  Franconian  house. 

14.  The    Swabian   House    (Hohenstauf en)  ;    A.D.   1138.  — 
a.  A  contest  with  the  Welfs.     b.  The  Lombard  league,     c.  The 
kingdom  of  Sicily ;  1130.    d.  The  third  crusade,  1189.    e.  The  fourth 
crusade,  1204.     /.  Pope  Innocent  III.;  A.D.  1200.     g.  The  house 
of  Plantagenet ;  1154.    h.  The  kingdom  of  Portugal ;  1139.  —  i.  The 
Almohades  in  Spain,     k.  The  second  crusade,  1147.     I.  The  mark 
of  Brandenburg,     m.  The  duchy  of  Austria,     n.  Henry  the  Lion. 
—  Map:  Germany;  A.D.  1138;   Europe;  A.D.  1200.     Genealogy  of 
the  Welfs. 

15.  The  Great  Interregnum;   A.D.  1250.  —  a.    Frederic  II., 
d.  1250.     b.  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  d.  1291.     c.  Ottocar  II.  of  Bo- 
hemia, d.  1278.     d.  St.  Louis  of  France,  d.  1270.    e.  Ferdinand  III. 
of  Castile,  d.  1252.    /.  The  Teutonic  knights,    g.  The  Albigensian 
crusade,    h.  Genghis  Khan,  d.  1227.  —  i.  The  seventh  crusade,  1270. 
k.  Iceland.  —  Map :    Spain  in  1050  and  1250.     Genealogy  of  the 
Hohenstaufen. 

III.  PERIOD  OF  FRENCH  ASCENDENCY.    A.D.  1250-1500. 

16.  The  Fourteenth  Century,  to  1328.  —  a.   Philip  IV.,  the 
Fair;  A.D.  1300.     b.  The  house  of  Anjou  in  Naples,     c.  Venice. 
d.  Genoa,     e.  The  Popes  at  Avignon,     f.   The  independence  of 
Scotland,     g.  The  Swiss  confederacy,     h.  Casimir  the  Great  of 
Poland,  d.  1370.     i.  Louis  the  Great  of  Hungary,  d.  1382.  —  k.  The 
conquest  of  Wales.     L  Henry  VII.  in  Italy.    TO.  Louis  IV.  and 
John  XXII.  —  Map :  Germany ;  A.D.  1300.    Genealogy  of  the  house 
of  Anjou. 

17.  The  Hundred  Years'  War,  to  1360.  — a.  The  house  of 
Valois.      b.    The  treaty  of  Bretigny,  1360.      c.    The  Jacquerie. 
d.  The  house  of  Luxemburg  in  Germany,     e.  The  house  of  False- 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY.  327 

ologus  in  Constantinople.  /.  The  Ottoman  Turks,  g.  Tamerlane, 
d.  1405.  h.  The  duchy  of  Milan.  —  t.  Rienzi,  the  last  of  the  tri- 
bunes, d.  1354.  k.  Stephen  Dushan  of  Servia,  d.  1350.  —  Map: 
France  in  the  14th  century.  Genealogy  of  the  house  of  Valois. 

18.  The   Great   Schism ;   A.D.  1378.  —  a.  The  rival  "  obedi- 
ences," Rome  and  Avignon.     6.  The  council  of  Constance,  1414. 

c.  The  Hussite  wars.      rf.  The  civil  wars  of  Armagnac  and  Bur- 
gundy,    e.  Henry  IV.  of  England ;  A.D.  1400.    /.  Joan  of  Arc,  d. 
1431.     g.  The  Hanseatic  league,  1360.     h.  The  union  of  Calmar, 
1397.  _ ,-.  Philip  van  Artevelde,  d.  1382.     k.  The  battle  of  Agin- 
court,  1415.     /.  Pedro  the  Cruel  of  Castile,  d.  1369.     m.  The  battle 
of  Nicopolis,  1396.  —  Map:    1400.     Genealogy  of  descendants  of 
John  II.  of  France. 

19.  The  Fifteenth  Century,  to  1483.  — a.  Louis  XI.,  d.  1483. 
6.  The  duchy  of  Burgundy,     c.  Charles  the  Bold,  d.  1477.     d.  The 
wars  of    the    Roses,      e.  The   capture   of    Constantinople,   1453. 

f.  The  revival  of  learning,    g.  The  discovery  of  the  East  Indies. 
h.  The  invention  of  printing.  —  i.  John   Hunyady  of  Hungary, 

d.  1456.      k.  Scanderbeg,   d.   1467.      I.  The  kingmaker  Earl  of 
Warwick,  d.  1471.  —  Map:    The  east  of  Europe.     Genealogy  of 
descendants  of  Edward  HI. 

20.  The  End  of  the  Middle  Ages,  to  1517.  —  a.  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella:    A.D.  1500.      6.  The  house  of   Aragon   in   Naples. 

c.  The  Italian  expedition  of   Charles  VIII.,  1494.     d.  Florence. 

e.  The  house  of  Tudor,  1485.     /.  The  league  of  Cambrai,  1508. 

g.  Ivan  the  Great  of  Russia,  d.  1505.     h.  The  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica, 1492.  —  t.  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  d.  1503.     k.  Francesco  Sforza, 

d.  1466.     1.  Gonsalvo  di  Cordova,  d.  1515.     m.  The  Holy  League, 
1512.  —  Map :  Italy  in  the  15th  century.     Genealogy  of  Charles  V. 
(his  parents  and  grandparents). 


MODERN  HISTORY.      FROM  1500. 
I.  PERIOD  OF  RELIGIOUS  WARS.      1500-1650. 

21.  The  Reformation  Period,  1517-55.  —  a.  The  Ladies'  peace 
[of  Cambrai],  1529.  6.  The  peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  1559 
c.  The  Schrnalkaldic  league,  d.  The  peace  of  Augsburg,  1555, 


328  HISTORY    TOPICS. 

e.  The  duchy  of  Prussia.  /.  The  house  of  Austria,  g.  The  knights 
of  St.  John.  h.  'Gustarus  Wasa;  king,  1523.  —  i.  The  battles  of 
Marignano  and  Pavia.  k.  The  field  of  the  cloth  of  gold,  1520. 
I.  The  sack  of  Rome,  1527.  m.  Andrea  Doria,  d.  1560.  n.  The 
seizure  of  the  three  bishoprics,  1552.  o.  The  battle  of  Mohacs, 
1526.  p.  The  duchy  of  Florence,  1531.  —  Map:  1500. 

22.  The  Spanish   Supremacy;    to  1598.  —  a.  The  revolt  of 
the  Netherlands,  1572.     b.  The  Invincible  Armada,  1588.    c.  The 
Huguenot    wars,   1562-72.      d.  The  war  of    the    Henries,   1585. 
e.  The  annexation  of  Portugal,  1580.    /.  Pope  Sixtus  V.,  d.  1590. 
g.  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  d.  1586.     h.  Henry  IV.  of  France ;  A.D. 
1600.  —  i.  The  battle  of  Lepanto,  1571.     k.  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  d. 
1586.     1.  Alexander  Farnese,  Prince  of  Parma,  d.  1592.     m.  Ivan 
the  Terrible,  d.  1584.     n.  The  edict  of  Nantes,  1598.  —  Map  of  the 
Spanish  possessions.     Genealogy  of  the  house  of  Tudor. 

23.  The  Thirty  Years'  War;    to  1648.  —  a.  The  Cleve  suc- 
cession,    b.  The  war  in  Bohemia,     c.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  d.  1632. 
d.  Wallenstein,  d.  1634.    e.  The  peace  of  Westphalia,  1648.  /.  Car- 
dinal Richelieu,  d.  1642.    g.  The  English  revolution,     h.  The  house 
of  Romanof.  —  i.  The  Donauworth  affair,  1607.     k.  The  indepen- 
dence of  the  Netherlands,  1609.     I.  The  war  with  La  Rochelle. 
m.  The  independence  of  Portugal,  1640.     n.  The  colonization  of 
America,     o.  Transylvania.  —  Map :  1648. 

II.    PERIOD  OF  DYNASTIC  WARS. 

24.  The   Age    of   Louis    XIV.;    to   1697.  — a.  Louis   XIV.; 
A.D.  1700.     b.  The  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  1659.     c.  The  treaty  of 
Nymwegen,  1678.     d.  The  treaty  of  Ryswick,  1697.     e.  The  Eng- 
lish revolution  of  1688.    f.  Frederick  William,  the  Great  Elector, 
d.  1688.     g.  The  treaty  of  Oliva,  1660.     h.  The  treaty  of  Carlo- 
witz,  1699. —i.  The  invasion  of  the  Netherlands,  1672.     k.  The 
devastation  of  the  Palatinate,  1688.      /.   The  triple  alliance;    Sir 
William  Temple,  1668.     m.  John  Sobieski,  d.  1696.     n.  The  war 
of  the  Fronde.  —  Map:    The   countries  about  the   Baltic,  1660. 
Genealogy  of  the  house  of  Stuart. 

25.  The  Eighteenth  Century;    to   1763. —  a.  The  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  1713.     b.  The  pragmatic  sanction,     c.  The  treaty  of  Aix- 


MODERN  HISTOKY.  329 

larChapelle,  1748.     d.  The  treaties  of  Paris  and  Hubertsburg,  1763. 
e.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  d.  1718.    f.  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia, 

d.  1725.     g.   Frederick  the  Great 'of  Prussia,  d.  1786.      h.   The 
English  empire  in  India.  —  z.  Cardinal  Alberoni,  d.  1752.     k.  The 
quadruple  alliance.     I.    The  family  compact,      m.    The  treaty  of 
Vienna,  1738.      n.  The  treaty  of  Nystadt,  1721.     o.  The  kingdom 
of  Prussia,  1701.    p.  The  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  1720.  —  Map:  The 
east  of  Europe,  1750.     Genealogy  of  the  Spanish  succession. 

III.   REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD. 

26.  The  French  Revolution;    to  1799.  —  a.  The  first  parti- 
tion of  Poland,  1772.      b.  The  national  assembly,  1789.     c.  The 
declaration  of  Pilnitz,  1791.      d.  The  legislative  assembly,  1791. 

e.  The  national   convention,  1792.     f.  The  first  coalition,  1793. 
g.  The  second   and  third   partitions   of   Poland,  1793  and   1795. 
h.  The  peace  of  Basle,  1795.  —  i.  Count  Mirabeau,  d.  1791.     k.  The 
battle  of  Valmy,  1792.     I.  The  American  revolution,     m.  Cather- 
ine II.  of  Russia,  d.  1796.  —  Map:  Europe  in  1789.     Genealogy  of 
the  house  of  Romanof . 

27.  The  Wars  of  Napoleon ;    to  1815.  —  a.  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte;  A.D.  1800.     b.  The  armed  neutrality,  1800.     c.  The  treaty 
of  Luneville,  1801.     d.  The  peace  of  Presburg,  1805.     e.  The  con- 
federation of  the  Rhine,   1806.     /.  The  peace  of  Tilsit,   1807. 
g.  The  peace  of  Schonbrunn,  1809.     h.  The  peace  of  Vienna,  1815. 
—  i.  The  duchy  of  "Warsaw  and  kingdom  of  Poland,    k.  Napoleon's 
continental  system.     1.  The  French  annexations  in  their  order. 
-Map:    1800;    1810. 

28.  The  Period  of  Peace,  1815-1848.  —  a.  The  holy  alliance, 
1815.      b.  The   French  revolution  of  1830.     c.  The  kingdom  of 
Belgium,  1831.     d.  The  kingdom  of  Greece,  1831.     e.  The  extin- 
guishment of  Poland,  1831.    /.  Mehemet  Ali,  d.  1849.     g.  The 
war  of  the  Sonderbund,  1846.  —  h.  The  opium  war,  1840.     t.  The 
Afghan  war,  1839-41.     k.  The  French  occupation  of  Algiers,  1830. 
/.    Prince  Metternich,  d.  1859.  —  Map:  Europe  in  1820.     Geneal- 
ogy of  the  Bourbons. 

29.  The  Second  Empire;    to  1870.  —  a.  The  French  revolu- 
tion of  1848.     b.   The  Hungarian  revolution,     c.   The  Crimean 


330  HISTOKY   TOPICS. 

war,  1854.  d .  The  Sepoy  revolt,  1857.  e.  The  Italian  war,  1859. 
/.  The  Schleswig-Holstein  war,  1864.  g.  The  seven  weeks'  war, 
1866.  k.  Count  Cavour,  d.  1861.  i.  The  revolution  in  Rome. 
k.  The  revolution  in  Venice.  Z.  The  Greek  revolution,  1862. 
m.  The  Mexican  empire,  1863.  —  Map:  Italy  in  1850  and  1870. 

30.  The  German  Empire.  —  a.  The  Franco-Prussian  war,  1870. 
b.  Prince  Bismarck,  c.  The  Turko-Russian  war,  1876.  d.  The 
Afghan  war,  1878.  e.  The  Greek  question,  f.  The  Spanish 
republic,  1873.  g.  The  Egyptian  troubles,  1882.— A.  The  Abys- 
sinian war,  1867.  f.  The  Zulu  war,  1878.  k.  The  French  in 
Tunis,  1881.  /.  The  Dalmatian  revolt,  1882. — Map:  Germany  in 
1860, 1866,  and  1871. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  The   Discovery   of  America.  —  a.  The  fifteenth  century,- 
formation  of  States,     b.  The  renaissance,     e.  The  great  discover- 
ies and  inventions,    d.  Commerce  with  the  East  in  the  middle  ages. 
e.  The   Portuguese    navigators,     f.  The  voyages  of    Columbus. 
g.  The  Cabots. 

2.  Relation  of  American  to  European  History.  —  a.  16th 
cent. ;    rivalry  between    Spain,   France,   and  England,      b.  17th 
cent. ;  ascendency  of  France  and  Holland,     c.  Thirty  years'  war ; 
rise  of  Sweden,     d.  The  Puritan  revolution  in  England,     e.  The 
revolution  of  1688.    /.  18th  cent. ;  rivalry  of  France  and  England. 
g.   The  French  encyclopaedists,      h.   Reaction  of  America  upon 
Europe,     f.  Federalist  and  republican  sympathies. 

3.  Spanish  Explorations  and  Colonies  within  the  Limits  of 
the  United  States.  —  a.  De  Soto's  expedition,  1539.      b.  Coro- 
nado's  expedition,  1540.     c.  Cabrillo's  expedition,  1542.     d.  ex- 
plorations and  settlements  in  Florida. 

4.  French   Settlements   in    North  America.  —  a.  Cartier's 
discoveries.     5.  The  Huguenots  in  Carolina,     c.  The  settlement 
of  Acadia,   1604.      d.  Champlain's   discoveries  and  settlements. 
e.  The  discovery  of  the  Mississippi,  1673. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  331 


PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION.     1607-1688. 

5.  Virginia  and  Maryland.  —  a.  The  London  company  and 
the  Virginia  charter,     b.  The  Maryland  grant,     c.  The  govern- 
ment of  Virginia,     d.  Bacon's  rebellion,  1676.    e.  The  controversy 
with  Clayborne.  /.  The  nature  of  proprietary  government,    g.  The 
Puritan  revolution  in  Maryland. 

6.  The  Dutch  Colonies.  —  a.  The  Dutch  land  grants.     6.  The 
Jerseys.       c.  The    Pennsylvania    boundary.       d.  New    Sweden. 
e.  The   controversy   with    Connecticut.     /.  The   nature    of    the 
royal   province. 

7.  New  England.  —  a.  Patents  and  charters  in  New  England. 
b.  The  settlement  of  Massachusetts  bay.     c.  The  nature  of  charter 
government,     d.  Territorial  history  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire. 
e.  The  New  England  confederacy,    f.  The  Indian  wars.     g.  The 
Quakers  in  Massachusetts,     h.  The  blue  laws  of  Connecticut. 

8.  The  Southern  Colonies.  —  a.  Locke's  plan  of  government. 
b.  The  colonization  of  Georgia,     c.  The  Huguenot  refugees. 

9.  Chronological  Review  of  the  Period.  —  a.  Order  of  settle- 
ment of  the  colonies,     b.  Map  of  the  colonies  in  1688.     c.  History 
of  religious  toleration. 

PERIOD  OF  COLONIAL  LIFE.     1688-1763. 

10.  New  France  and  Florida.  —  a.   Extent  of  French  and 
Spanish  occupation,     b.  Wars  of  Count  Frontenac.     c.  The  North 
American  Indians. 

11.  The  Revolution  of  1688.  —  a.  The  new  charter  of  Massa- 
chusetts,    b.    Leisler's  rebellion,     c.    Salem  witchcraft,     d.   Sir 
Edmund  Andros. 

12.  King  William's  and  Queen  Anne's  Wars.  —  a.  The  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession,     b.  The  treaty  of  Utrecht,  1713.     c.  Sir 
William  Phips,  d.  1695.     d.  The  changes  in  colonial  government. 

13.  "Wars  of  George  IL  —  a.  The  seven  years' war.     b.  The 
treaty  of  Paris,  1763.     c.  Hostilities  in  1754  and  1755.     d.  The 
campaign  of  1758.     e.  The  conquest  of  Canada,     f.  Franklin's 
plan  of  union,  1754.     g.  The  conspiracy  of  Pontiac,  1763. 


332  HISTORY   TOPICS. 

14.  Review  of  the  Period.  —  a.  Map  of  the  colonies  in  1763. 
b.    Nationalities  in  the  colonies,      c.    Education,      d.    Industry. 
e.  Slavery.     /.  Literature,     g.  Church  organizations. 

REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     1763-1789. 

15.  1763  to  1770.  —  a.  The  navigation  acts  and  writs  of  assist- 
ance,    b.  The  stamp  act,  1765.     c.  The  congress  of  1765.     d.  Acts 
of  Graf  ton's  administration,  in  relation  to  America,     e.  Troubles 
in  New  York.     /.  Affairs  in  the  South,     g.  The  British  adminis- 
trations,    h.  James  Otis,  d.  1783. 

16.  1770  to  1774.  —  a.    Lord  North's  financial  acts  and  the 
Boston  tea-party,     b.    The  acts  of  parliament  of  1774.     c.  The 
Continental  congress  of  1774.     d.  The  Boston  massacre,  March  5, 
1770.     e.  The  burning  of  the  Gaspe,  June  10,  1772.     /.  Patrick 
Henry,  d.  1799.     g.  Samuel  Adams,  d.  1803. 

17.  1775.  —  a.   The  acts  of  congress,      b.   Hostilities  down  to 
June.     c.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June  17.     d.  The  expedition 
to  Canada,     e.  George  Washington,  d.  1799. 

18.  1776.  —  a.  Acts  of  independence  and  union,     b.  The  siege 
of  Boston,     c.  Military  operations  about  New  York.     d.  Washing- 
ton in  New  Jersey,     e.  The  military  organization. 

19.  1777.  —  a.   Burgoyne's  expedition,      b.   The  occupation  of 
Philadelphia,     c.  The  operations  in  the  South,  1774-77.     d.  The 
Conway  cabal,     e.  The  finances  of  the  war.     /.  The  treaty  with 
France,  Feb.  6,  1778.     g.  Benjamin  Franklin,  d.  1790. 

20.  1778  and  1779.  — a.   The  battle  of  Monmouth,  June  28, 
1778.    b.  Sullivan's  expedition  against  the  Six  Nations,  1778.    c.  The 
expedition  of  George  Rogers  Clark,  1779.     d.  The  capture  of  Stony 
Hook,  July  15,  1779.     e.  The  operations  about  Savannah,    f.  John 
Paul  Jones,  d.  1792. 

21.  1780.  —  a.  The  battle  of  Camden,  August  16.     b.  The  battle 
of  King's  Mountain,  October  7.      c.   The  capture  of  Charleston, 
May  12.     d.  Arnold's  treason. 

22.  1781.  —  a.  The  battle  of  Cowpens,  January  17.     b.  Greene's 
retreat,  and  the  battle  of  Guilford,  March  25.     c.   Campaign  of 
Gen.  Greene  after  Guilford.      d.    Campaign  of  Lord  Cornwallis. 
e.  The  siege  of  Yorktown.    /.  Marquis  Lafayette,  d.  1834. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  333 

23.  Close  of  the  "War.  —  a.    The  armed  neutrality,     b.  The 
treaty  of  peace,     c.  The  Newburgh  addresses,     d.  The  formation 
of  state  governments,     e.  The  cession  of  the  public  lands. 

24.  The  Confederacy,  1781-89.  —  a.  The  articles  of  confeder- 
ation,    b.    The  financial  troubles,     c.  Shay's  rebellion,     d.  The 
ordinance  of  1787.     e.  The  formation  of  the  constitution. 

25.  The   Constitution.  —  a.    The   distinctive  features  of  the 
constitution,      b.    The  establishment  of    the    new    government. 
c.  Settlement  and  early  history  of  Kentucky,     d.   The  Vermont 
controversy,     e.  Formation  of  state  government  in  Tennessee. 

26.  Review  of  the  Period.  —  a.  Hamilton's  theory  of  govern- 
ment,    b.  Madison's  theory  of  government,     c.  Luther  Martin's 
theory  of  government,      d.    Party  divisions  at  the  close  of  the 
period. 

PERIOD  OF  THE  REPUBLIC.     1789-1876. 
I.  FOREIGN  RELATIONS,  TO  1820. 

27.  "Washington's  First  Administration,  1789-93.  —  a.  The 
amendments  to  the  constitution,      b.  The  legislation  of  the  first 
congress,     c.  Hamilton's  financial  policy,    d.  The  Indian  troubles. 
e.  A  permanent  seat  of  government. 

28.  Washington's    Second    Administration,    1793  -  97.  — 
a.   Jay's  treaty,  1795.     b.    The   French  complications,     c.    The 
whiskey  insurrection,  1794.     d.    Washington's   farewell  address. 
e.  Alexander  Hamilton,  d.  1804. 

29.  John  Adams'  Administration,  1797-1801.  —  a.  The  war 
with  France,     b.   The  alien  and  sedition  acts.     c.   The  Virginia 
and  Kentucky  resolutions,     d.  The  presidential  election  of  1800-1. 
e.  The  schism  in  the  Federalist  party ;  the  Essex  junto. 

30.  Jefferson's  First  Administration,  1801-5.  —  a.  The  pur- 
chase of  Louisiana,  1803.     b.  The  war  with  Tripoli,  1801.     c.  The 
north-western  territory,     d.  The  amendment  to  the  constitution. 

31.  Jefferson's  Second  Administration,  1805-9.  —  a.  Burr's 
conspiracy,  1806.     b.  Relations  with  France  and  England,     c.  The 
embargo,  1807. 

32.  Madison's   First  Administration,   1809-13.  — a.  Causes 


834  HISTORY  TOPICS. 

of    the    war    of    1812.      b.  The    Indian    hostilities;    Tecumseh. 
c.  Naval  operations  in   1812.      d.  Hull's  surrender,   August   16. 

33.  Madison's  Second  Administration,  1813-17.  —  a.  Cam- 
paigns on  the  northern  frontier,     b.  Military  operations  in  1814. 

c.  Jackson's    campaigns    in    the    South,      d.  Naval    operations. 
e.     The  attack  upon  Washington  and  Baltimore.     /.  The  Hart- 
ford convention,  1814.     g.  The  treaty  of  Ghent,  Dec.  24,  1814. 
h.  The  war  with  Algiers,  1815. 

34.  Monroe's    Administration,   1817-25.  —  a.  The   Missouri 
compromise,     b.  The  purchase  of  Florida,  1819.     c.  The  Semi- 
nole  war.     d.  The  settlement  of  the  northern  boundary. 

35.  Review   of    the  Period.  —  a.  The  era  of  good  feeling. 
b.  The  bank  of  the  United  States,     c.  Tariff  legislation  until  1815. 

d.  Foreign  relations,     e.  Slavery  and  the  slave-trade. 

n.  ECONOMIC  QUESTIONS,  TO  1845. 

36.  John  Quincy  Adams' Administration,  1825-29.  —  o.   The 
Panama  congress  and  the  Monroe  doctrine,     b.  Georgia  and  the 
Creek  Indians,     c.  The  tariff  of  1828. 

37.  Jackson's    First   Administration,   1829-33.  — a.    Nulli- 
fication,    b.  The  anti-Mason  party,      c.  Black-hawk's  war,  1832. 
d.  The  "kitchen  cabinet."     e.  John  C.  Calhoun,  d.  1850. 

38.  Jackson's   Second  Administration,  1833-37.  —  a.  The 
removal  of  the  deposits,     b.  the  anti-slavery  movement,     c.  The 
farewell  address,     d.  The  Seminole  war.     e.  The  French  spolia- 
tion claims. 

39.  Van   Bur  en's    Administration,   1837-41.  —  a.  The   sub- 
treasury,     b.  The  crisis  of  1837.     c.  The  repudiation  movement. 
d.  The  affair  of  the  Caroline. 

40.  Harrison  and  Tyler's  Administrations,  1841-45. — a.  The 
Webster-Ashburton  treaty,  1842.     b.  The  tariff  of  1842.     c.  The 
annexation  of  Texas,  1845.     d.  Dorr's  rebellion,  1842.     e.  The 
Mormon  troubles  in  Illinois,  1844.    /.  Daniel  Webster,  d.  1852. 

HL  THB  SILVERY  CONTROVERSY,  TO  1876. 

41.  Folk's  Administration,  1845-49.  —  a.  The  campaigns  of 
the  Mexican  war.    b.  The  occupation  of  the  Pacific  coast,    c.  The 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  335 

treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo,  1848.     d.  The  north-western  bound- 
ary,    e.  The  tariff  of  1846.    /.  The  Wilmot  proviso. 

42.  Taylor    and    Fillmore's    Administrations,    1849-53. — 
a.  The  omnibus  bill,  1850.     b.  The  free-soil  party,     c.  The  fugi- 
tive-slave law.      d.  The  Japan   expedition,      e.  The  correspond- 
ence of  Webster  and  Hiilsemann.    f,  Henry  Clay,  d.  1852.    g.  The 
Cuban  filibusters. 

43.  Pierce's    Administration,    1853-57.  —  a.  The   Nebraska 
bill,  1854.      b.  The  know-nothing  party,      c.  The  Gadsden  par- 
chase,    d.  Diplomatic  relations  with  Great  Britain,    e.  The  Ostend 
manifesto. 

44.  Buchanan's   Administration,  1857-61.  —  a.  The  Kansas 
question,      b.  The  Dred  Scott  decision,  1857.     c.  The  personal- 
liberty  bills,     d.  The  Mormons  in  Utah.     e.  The  acts  of  secession. 
/.  John  Brown,  d.  1859. 

45.  Lincoln's  Administration;  to  July,  1862. —  a.  The  pen- 
insular campaign,    b.  Operations  in  the  West  until  Shiloh.    c.  The 
capture  of  New  Orleans,     d.  The  Merrimac  and  Monitor,     e.  The 
arrest    of    Mason    and    Slidell.     /.  The    national  bank  system. 
g.  The  policy  towards  slavery.     A.  The  constitution  of  the  Con- 
federacy,    f.  Operations  on  the  seaboard. 

46.  Lincoln's  Administration;    July  1862,  to  Jan.  1864. — 

a.  Pope's  campaign,    b.  McClellan's  Antietam  campaign,     c.  Fred- 
ericksburg   and   Chancellorsville.      d.  Murfreesboro*.      e.  Gettys- 
burg.   /.  The  opening  of  the  Mississippi,     g.  Chickamauga  and 
Chattanooga,     h.  The  emancipation  proclamation. 

47.  Lincoln's    Administration,    1864-65.  —  a.  Grant's   cam- 
paign in  Virginia,  ft.  Sherman's  campaign  in  the  South,  c.  Hood's 
advance  into  Tennessee,     d.  The  Shenandoah  campaign,     e.  The 
Confederate  cruisers.    /.  The  policy  towards  the  seceded  states. 
g.  The  sanitary  commission.     A.  The  Freedmen's  Bureau. 

48.  Johnson's  Administration,  1865-69.  —  a.  Reconstruction. 

b.  The  impeachment  of  the  president,  1868.     c.  The  purchase  of 
Alaska,  1867.     d.  The  constitutional  amendments. 

49.  Grant's   Administration,   1869-77.  — a.    The   Santo   Do- 
mingo treaty,  1870.    b.  The  resumption  of  specie  payments,    c.  The 
Geneva  congress,  1872.     d.  The  Credit  Mobilier. 


336,  HISTORY   TOPICS. 

50.  Review  of  the  Period.  —  a.  The  tariff  question,  b.  The 
slavery  controversy,  c.  The  public  lands,  d.  The  Indian  policy. 
e.  The  civil  service.  /.  The  Pacific  railroad,  g.  The  fisheries.  — 
Maps:  1688,  1763,  1783,  1803,  1820,  1850,  1876.  List  of  the  states 
admitted  to  the  union,  with  dates.  List  of  the  vice-presidents, 
with  state,  full  name,  and  date.  List  of  the  secretaries  of  state, 
with  same. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   CHURCH    HISTORY. 


CONTENTS. 


FAGB. 

I.  INTRODUCTORY 343 

II.  GENERAL  CHURCH  HISTORY 344 

A.  Eastern. 

1.  Armenian 344 

2.  Coptic 344 

3.  Georgian 344 

4.  Graeco-Russian 344 

6.  Nestorian 346 

6.  Syrian 346 

B.  Western. 

1.  North  African 346 

2.  European  346 

III.  EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 360 

1.  General 360 

2.  Catacombs 364 

3.  Charity 366 

4.  Controversies  and  Heresies 366 

6.  Patristics 365 

6.  Persecutions 366 

IV.  MEDIEVAL  CHRISTIANITY 366 

1.  General 366 

2.  Celibacy  of  the  Clergy 357 

3.  Crusades 367 

4.  Lollards 367 

6.  Myths 368 

6.  Waldenses..  358 


340  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

V.    MODERN  CHRISTIANITY 358 

1.  General  Histories  of  the  Reformation  Period 358 

2.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 360 

I.  General 360 

II.  The  Inquisition 361 

III.  Jansenists 361 

IV.  Jesuits 361 

V.  Port  Royalists 361 

VI.  Ultramontanism  and  Vaticanism 302 

3.  Old  Catholics 362 

4.  Modern  Ecclesiastical  History,  by  Countries 362 

I.  Bohemia 362 

II.  England 362 

A.  The  Church  of  England  established  by  Law  362 

B.  Dissenters 363 

III.  France  364 

IV.  Germany  365 

V.  Holland 365 

VI.  Hungary 365 

VII.  Ireland 365 

VIII.  Italy 365 

IX.  Poland  365 

X.  Scandinavia 366 

XI.  Scotland 366 

XII.  Spain  366 

XIII.  Switzerland 366 

XIV.  United  States  of  America 366 

A.  General 366 

B.  Denominational 367 

VI.   SPECIAL  TOPICS 371 

1.  Art 371 

2.  Biography 372 

A.  Biblical 372 

I.  Lives  of  Christ 372 

II.  Lives  of  Apostles 373 

B.  General 374 

I.  Collections 374 

II.  Individual 375 


CONTENTS.  341 

VI.    SPECIAL   TOPICS —  Continued.  PAGE. 

3.  Church  and  State 377 

4.  Councils  377 

5.  Creeds 378 

6.  Doctrines  378 

7.  Fiction 379 

8.  Liturgies 381 

9.  Martyrs 382 

10.  Miracle  Plays  and  Mysteries 382 

11.  Missions 382 

12.  Monastic  Orders 383 

13.  Rationalism 383 

14.  Reference  Books 383 

16.  Sacred  Seasons 386 

16.  Symbolism 385 

APPENDIX 386 

INDEX  TO  AUTHORS 387 


LIST  OP  ABBREVIATIONS. 


App.  for  Appleton ;  B.,  for  Boston ;  Ber.,  for  Berlin ;  C.,  for 
Cassell;  C.  &  H.,  for  Chapman  &  Hall;  Ch.,  for  Chicago;  E.  &  L., 
for  Estes  &  Lauriat;  Ed.,  for  Edinburgh;  H.,  for  Harper;  L.,  for 
London ;  Lip.,  for  Lippincott ;  Longm.,  for  Longmans ;  Lp.,  for 
Leipsic ;  L.  &  B.,  for  Little,  Brown,  &  Co. ;  L.  &  S.,  for  Lee  & 
Shepard ;  M.,  for  Murray ;  Macm.,  for  Macmillan ;  O.,  for  Osgood ; 
P.,  for  Paris;  Ph.,  for  Philadelphia;  Put.,  for  Putnams;  R.,  for 
Roberts;  Scr.,  for  Scribner;  S.  &  E.,  for  Smith,  Elder,  &  Co.; 
W.  &  N.,  for  Williams  &  Norgate.  E.S.  stands  for  Epochs  Series 
(Scribner) ;  and  Soc.,  for  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian 
Knowledge  (Young). 


A  SELECT  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL 

HISTORY,1 


BY  JOHN  ALONZO  FISHER, 

GRADUATE  STUDENT  or  CHURCH  HISTORY  AND  PHILOSOPHY  AT 
JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY. 


I.  INTRODUCTORY. 

Crooks,  G.  R.,  and  Hurst,  J.  F.  Theological  Encyclopaedia  and 
Methodology.  Based  on  Hagenbach.  8vo.  pp.  596.  N.Y. 
Phillips  &  Hunt.  1884.  $4.00. 

An  admirable  introduction  to  all  departments  of  theological  study. 

It  contains  valuable  bibliographies,  German  and  English. 

Dowling,  John  G.  An  Introduction  to  the  Critical  Study  of  Ecclesi- 
astical History,  attempted  in  an  account  of  the  progress,  and  a 
short  notice  of  the  sources  of  the  history  of  the  church.  L, 

1838. 

Hitchcock,  R.  D.  The  True  Idea  and  Uses  of  Church  History. 
N.Y.  1856. 

Newton,  J.  Review  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  etc.  Works,  p.  369 
(pp.  88). 

Schaff",  Philip.  General  Introduction  to  Church  History,  Bibli- 
otheca  Sacra,  v.  6,  1849,  p.  409  (pp.  33)  ;  and  Progress  of  Church 
History  as  a  Science,  Bib.  Sac.,  v.  7,  1850,  p.  54  (pp.  37). 

Id.  What  is  Church  History  ?  A  vindication  of  the  idea  of  histori- 
cal development.  12mo.  pp.  128.  Ph.  Lip.  1846. 

Smith,  H.  B.  Nature  and  Worth  of  the  Science  of  Church  History. 
Andover.  1851.  In  Bib.  Sac.,  v.  8,  1851,  p.  412  (pp.  30). 

1  For  abbreviations,  see  opposite  page. 


344  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

Smyth,  Egbert  C.  Value  of  the  Study  of  Church  History  in  Minis- 
terial Education.  A  lecture  delivered  to  the  senior  class  of 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  pp.  31.  Andover.  Draper 
1874.  Paper,  25  cents. 

Of  practical  value  to  pastors. 

Stanley,  A.  P.  Three  Introductory  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  Eccle- 
siastical History.  8vo.  Oxford.  J.  H.  &  J.  Parker.  1857. 
Republished  as  an  introduction  to  the  American  edition  of  the 
author's  History  of  the  Eastern  Church.  1861.  N.Y. :  Scr., 
1867.  Scribner,  Armstrong,  &  Co.,  1873,  $2.50. 

Compare  the  introductory  pages  of  the  church  histories  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  writers  Fleury,  Mohler,  Alzog,  Dollinger,  and 
Hergenrother,  and  the  Protestant  writers  Mosheim,  Schroeckh, 
Gieseler,  Hase,  Niedner,  Kurtz,  and  Schaff. 


II.  GENERAL  CHURCH  HISTORY. 
A.  EASTERN.  —  1.  Armenian. 

Davis,  (Mrs.)  Tamar.  A  General  History  of  the  Sabbatarian 
Churches.  Embracing  accounts  of  the  Armenian,  East  Indian, 
and  Abyssinian  Episcopacies.  8vo.  pp.  255.  Ph.  Lindsay  & 
Blakiston.  1851. 

2.  Coptic. 

Malan,  S.  C.  A  Short  History  of  the  Copts  and  of  their  Church. 
12mo.  pp.  115.  L.  Nutt.  1873.  2s.  Qd. 

3.  Georgian. 

Joselan,  P.  A  Short  History  of  the  Georgian  Church.  Translated 
from  the  Russian,  and  edited  with  additional  notes  by  S.  C. 
Malan.  8vo.  L.  Saunders.  1865.  $1.50. 

4.  Grceco-Russian. 

Neale,  J.  M.  A  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church,  the  Patri- 
archate of  Antioch,  etc.  Edited,  with  an  introduction,  by 
George  Williams.  8vo.  L.  1873.  $5.00. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  345 

Stanley,  A.  P.  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
L.  &N.Y.,  1862.  N.Y. :  Scribner,  Armstrong  &  Co.,  1873.  $2.50. 
Contains  three  introductory  lectures  on  Church  history.  These 
lectures  were  delivered  at  Oxford .  Not  a  contin  uous  and  exhaustive 
history,  hut,  like  all  of  Dean  Stanley's  writings,  fascinating  and 
scholarly.  The  sections  on  the  Arian  controversy  are,  according 
to  Dr.  Schaff ,  who  also  criticizes  Stanley's  omission  to  discuss  the 
Nestorian  and  the  other  Christological  controversies  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  "  more  brilliant  than  solid." 

5.  Nestorian. 

Badger,  Geo.  Percy.  The  Nestorians  and  their  Rituals.  Illustrated 
(with  colored  plates).  2  v.  L.  1852. 

6.  Syrian. 

Wortabet,  John.  Researches  into  the  Religions  of  Syria ;  or,  Sketches, 
Historical  and  Doctrinal,  of  its  Religious  Sects.  Svo.  L.  Nis- 
bet.  1860. 

Cf .  paper  by  H.  H.  Jessitp  in  Proceedings  of  the  Sixth  Session  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance.    N.Y.    H.    1874. 


B.  WESTERN.  —  1.  North  African. 

Lloyd,  Julius.  The  North  African  Church.  Svo.  With  map.  L. 
Soc.  1880.  3s.  Qd. 

2.  European. 

Allen,  Joseph  Henry.  Christian  History  in  its  Three  Great  Periods. 
16mo.  3v.  B.  R.  §1.25  each. 

Convenient;  liberal;  readable. 

4lzog,  John.  A  Manual  of  Universal  Church  History.  Translated 
from  the  ninth  enlarged  and  improved  German  edition,  and 
edited  and  brought  down  to  the  present  time,  by  F.  J.  Pabisch 
and  Thomas  S.  Byrne.  3  v.  I.  Early  Church  History ;  II.  The 
Middle  Ages ;  III.  To  the  Present  Time.  8vo.  Cincinnati. 
Clarke  &  Co.  $15.00. 

At  once  the  latest  and  the  highest  Roman  Catholic  authority. 

"  Alzog  aims  to  be  the  Roman  Catholic  Hase  as  to  brevity  and 


346  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

condensation.  .  .  .  The  American  translators  censure  the  French 
translators  for  the  liberties  they  have  taken  with  Alzog,  hut  they 
have  taken  similar  liberties,  and,  by  sundry  additions,  made  the 
author  more  Romish  than  he  was."  —  P.  SCHAFF. 

Arnold,  Matthew.  St.  Paul  and  Protestantism;  with  an  Introduc- 
tion on  Puritanism  and  the  Church  of  England.  12mo.  N.Y. 
1875.  $1.75.  L.  Smith,  Elder,  &  Co.  4s.  Qd. 
Blackburn,  W.  M.  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  from  its 
Origin  to  the  Present  Time.  8vo.  pp.  719.  Cincinnati. 
Hitchcock  &  Walden.  1879.  $2.50. 

Comprehensive  and  convenient.  By  a  Presbyterian. 
Dollinger,  John  Joseph  Ignatius.  Manual  of  Church  History. 
Translated  from  Dr.  Db'llinger's  unfinished  Handbook  of  Chris- 
tian Church  History,  1833,  and  Manual  of  Church  History,  1836, 
by  Edw.  Cox.  4  v.  8vo.  pp.  287,  375,  351,  245.  L.  Dolman. 
1840-42. 

This  work  extends  to  the  Reformation.    Dr.  Dollinger,  since  1870 

the  leader  of  the  Old  Catholic  movement,  is  the  most  learned  Roman 

Catholic  historian  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Gieseler,  John  C.  L.  Text-Book  of  Church  History.  5  v.  Bonn. 
1824-56.  Fourth  edition,  1844  sqq.  "  Translated  into  English 
first  by  Cunningham,  Ph.,  1846 ;  then  by  Davidson  and  Hall  in 
England ;  and  last  and  best,  on  the  basis  of  the  former,  by 
Henry  B.  Smith.  5  v.  N.Y.  H.  1857-80.  The  fifth  and  last 
volume  of  this  edition  was  completed  after  Dr.  Smith's  death 
(1877)  by  Prof.  Stearns  and  Miss  Mary  A.  Robinson,  with  an 
introductory  notice  by  Philip  Schaff. "  Veils.  1,  2,  3,  and  4, 
$2.25  each ;  vol.  5,  $3.00. 

"Profoundly  learned,  acute,  calm,  impartial,  conscientious,  but 
cold  and  dry."  —  P.  SCHAFF.  "  The  standard  complete  history  of 
the  church."  —  W.  F.  ALLEN.  The  great  merit  of  this  work  is  its 
wealth  of  choice  extracts  from  the  original  authorities.  It  is  gener- 
ally considered  the  best  of  all  the  text-books  on  church  history. 

Guericke,  H.  E.  F.  Handbook,  etc.  Translated,  in  part,  by  W.  G. 
T.  Shedd.  8vo.  2  v.  pp.  xvi,  433;  pp.  viii,  160.  Andover. 
Draper.  1857  and  1870.  Vol.  L  (to  A.D.  590),  $2.75;  Vol.  II. 
(to  A.I>.  1073),  $1.25. 

The  tone  of  the  book  is  that  of  a  Lutheran  polemic. 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  347 

Hardwick,  Charles.  A  History  of  the  Christian  Church.  2v.  12mo. 
Vol.  I. :  Middle  Ages,  with  maps  constructed  for  the  work  by 
A.  Keith  Johnson.  Vol.  II. :  The  Reformation.  12mo.  Cam- 
bridge and  London.  1861-65.  $3.00  per  vol. 

Written  for  students  by  a  representative  of  the  Church  of  England. 

Hose,  Charles.     A  History  of  the  Christian  Church.     Translated 

from  the  seventh  and  much  improved  German  edition,  by  C.  E. 

Blumenthal  and  C.  P.  Wing.     8vo.     N.Y.     1855;  1870.     $3.50. 

Since  the  publication  of  the  translation,  the  German  work  has  been 

revised.    Condensed,  skilfully  arranged,  and  well  written. 

Hurst,  J.  F.  Outlines  of  Church  History.  N.Y.  Philips  &  Hunt. 
1884.  50  cents. 

Kurtz,  John  Henry.    Text-Book  of  Ch.  Hist.    Tr.  from  the  German. 

8vo.    2  v.    pp.  534,  454.     Ph.     Lindsay  &  Blakiston.    1861-62. 

9th  ed.,  thoroughly  revised  and  partly  rewritten.  1885.  83.00. 
Concise.  By  an  Evangelical  professor  in  the  University  of  Dorpat. 
Vol.  1  is  a  revised  reprint  of  Edersheim's  Edinb.  ed.;  Vol.  2  is  an 
original  translation  by  J.  H.  A.  Bomberyer,  aided  by  John  Beck. 

Lawrence,  Eugene.  Historical  Studies.  8vo.  pp.  508.  N.Y.  H. 
1876.  Contents :  The  Bishops  of  Rome ;  Leo  and  Luther ; 
Loyola  and  the  Jesuits ;  Ecumenical  Councils  ;  The  Vaudois ; 
The  Huguenots ;  The  Church  of  Jerusalem  ;  Dominic  and  the 
Inquisition ;  The  Conquest  of  Ireland ;  The  Greek  Church. 
Protestant.  Clear,  strong,  and  accurate. 

Lea,  Henry  C.  Studies  in  Church  History :  The  Rise  of  the 
Temporal  Power ;  Benefit  of  Clergy ;  Excommunication.  8vo. 
pp.  xiii,  518.  Ph.  H.  C.  Lea.  1869.  $2.50. 

Milman,  H.  H.  History  of  Latin  Christianity ;  including  that  of 
the  Popes  to  the  Pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.  8  v.  12mo.  pp. 
554,  551,  525,  555,  530,  539,  570,  561.  N.Y.  Armstrong  &  Son. 
1881.  $14.00. 

Of  great  value  alike  to  students  and  to  general  readers.    See  under 

Mediaeval  Christianity. 

Milner,  Joseph.     History  of  the  Church  of  Christ.     L.     1794-1812. 
New  corrected  edition,  4  v.,  1847,  1860,  etc.     L.    1875.    18s. 
Pietistic;  neither  scholarly  nor  polemic. 


348  A    SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY    OF 

Mosheim,  John  Lawrence.  Institutes  of  Ecclesiastical  History, 
Ancient  and  Modern.  A  new  and  literal  translation  from  the 
original  Latin,  with  copious  additional  notes,  original  and 
selected,  by  James  Murdoch.  3  v.,  fifth  edition,  N.Y.,  1854 ; 
3  v.  in  one,  8vo,  pp.  470,  485,  506.  N.Y.  Carter  &  Bros.  1881. 
$5.00.  (There  is  a  translation  by  A.  Maclaine.  N.Y.  H. 
14.00.) 

The  distinguished  author,  a  moderate  Lutheran,  is  "the  father  of 
church  historiography  as  an  art,  unless  we  prefer  to  concede  this 
merit  to  Bossuet."  Skilful,  clear,  impartial.  Mosheim  wrote  in 
unrivalled  Latin.  He  died  in  1755. 

Neander,  J.  Augustus  W.  General  History  of  the  Christian  Religion 
and  Church.  Translated  from  the  second  improved  German 
edition  by  Joseph  Torry.  5  v.,  8vo,  Boston,  1854;  also,  8  v., 
12mo,  L.  &  N.Y.,  1861.  Twelfth  edition  :  B.  Houghton.  1881. 
$18.00. 

This  well-known  history  is  "distinguished  for  thorough  and  con- 
scientious use  of  the  sources,  critical  research,  ingenious  combina- 
tion, tender  love  of  truth  and  justice,  evangelical  catholicity,  hearty 
piety,  and  by  masterly  analysis  of  the  doctrinal  systems  and  the 
subjective  Christian  life  of  men  of  God  in  past  ages.  .  .  .  The  poli- 
tical and  artistic  sections,  and  the  outward  machinery  of  history, 
were  not  congenial  to  the  humble,  guileless  simplicity  of  Neander. 
His  style  is  monotonous,  involved,  and  diffuse,  but  unpretending, 
natural,  and  warmed  by  a  genial  glow  of  sympathy  and  enthusi- 
asm."—  P.  SCHAFF,  his  pupil. 

Newman,  John  Henry.  Essays  Critical  and  Historical.  2  v.,  with 
notes.  Poetry ;  Rationalism ;  De  la  Mennais ;  Palmer  on  Faith 
and  Unity ;  St.  Ignatius ;  Prospectus  of  the  Anglican  Church  ; 
The  Anglo-American  Church ;  Countess  of  Huntingdon ;  Catho- 
licity of  the  Anglican  Church ;  The  Antichrist  of  Protestants  \ 
Milman's  Christianity ;  Reformation  of  the  Eleventh  Cejitury ; 
Private  Judgment ;  Davison ;  Kemble.  L.  Pickering.  1872-77. 
12s. 

By  the  able  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  formerly  of  the  Church  of 

England. 

Id.  Historical  Sketches.  3  v.  Primitive  Christianity ;  Church  of 
the  Fathers ;  St.  Chrysostom ;  Theodoret ;  St.  Benedict,  etc. 
L.  Pickering.  1873  sqq.  18s. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  349 

Robinson,  James  E.  History  of  the  Christian  Church  (A.D.  64-1517). 
4  v.,  1854  sqq. ;  8  v.,  12mo,  L.,  1874. 

The  best  general  history  yet  written  from  the  Anglican  point  of  view. 

Schaff,  Philip.  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church.  8vo.  N.Y. 
1853,  etc.  83.75. 

Excellent,  but  superseded  by  his  magnum  opus,  History  of  the 
Christian  Church. 

Id.  History  of  the  Christian  Church.  3  v.  8vo.  1859-67.  Revised 
and  enlarged,  with  maps :  Vol.  I.,  Apostolic  Christianity  (A.D. 
1-100),  pp.  863 ;  Vol.  II.,  Ante-Nicene  Christianity  (A.D.  100- 
325),  pp.  866;  Vol.  III.,  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Christianity 
(A.D.  311-600),  pp.  1039.  N.Y.  Scr.  1882-84.  (Other  volumes 
are  promised.)  $4.00  per  volume. 

The  greatest  monument  of  American  scholarship  in  the  field  of 
church  history.  Orthodox,  liberal,  readable.  Though  designed 
especially  for  students,  it  meets  the  wants  of  studious  men  in  all 
the  walks  of  life.  It  is  peculiarly  rich  in  bibliographies. 

Smith,  Philip.  The  Student's  Manual  of  Ecclesiastical  History.  A 
history  of  the  Christian  church  from  the  time  of  the  Apostles  to 
the  full  establishment  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  the  Papal 
power.  Illustrated.  12mo.  N.Y.  H.  1879.  $1.50. 

An  excellent  manual.    It  contains  chronological  tables,  and  has  an 

index. 

Stanley,  A.  P.  Essays  on  Ecclesiastical  Subjects  :  Baptism  and  the 
Eucharist,  Absolution,  Ecclesiastical  Vestments,  the  Basilica, 
the  Clergy,  the  Pope,  the  Litany,  the  Roman  Catacombs,  the 
Creed  of  the  Early  Christians,  the  Lord's  prayer,  the  Council 
and  Creed  of  Constantinople,  and  the  Ten  Commandments. 
12mo.  N.Y.  H.  50  cents. 
By  a  scholarly  genius. 

Waddington,  George.  History  of  the  Church,  from  the  Earliest 
Ages  to  the  Reformation.  8vo.  N.Y.  H.  $2.00. 

Washburn,  E.  A.  Lectures  on  the  Apostolic  Age,  the  Nicene  Age, 
the  Latin  Age,  the  Reformation,  the  English  Church,  the  Church 
of  America,  the  Church  of  the  Future,  Richard  Hooker,  etc. 
12mo.  pp.  400.  N.Y.  Dutton  &  Co.  $1.75. 


350  A  SELECT   BIBLIOGBAPHY  OF 

Whately,  Richard.  A  General  View  of  the  Rise,  Progress,  and 
Corruption  of  Christianity.  12mo.  pp.  288.  N.Y.  W.  Gow- 
ans,  1860.  N.  Tibbals  &  Sons,  1876.  $1.50. 

White,  James.  The  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries.  12mo.  L.  & 
N.Y.  Second  edition.  1862.  App.  $2.00. 

"  Its  merit  is  in  the  fact  that  the  spirit  of  each  age  is  generally  well 
apprehended  and  correctly  represented ;  while  its  weakness  shows 
itself  in  what  must  be  considered  an  altogether  artificial  division 
of  history  into  exact  periods  of  a  hundred  years  each.  The  author's 
style  is  at  all  times  bright  and  vigorous." — C.  K.  ADAMS. 


III.   EARLY   CHRISTIANITY. 

(See  Lives  of  Christ,  under  Biography.) 
1.  GENERAL. 

Baumgarten,  M.     Apostolic  History.     The  Acts  of  the  Apostles; 

or,  the  History  of  the  Church  in  the  Apostolic  Age.    Translated 

by  A.  J.  W.  Morrison.     3  v.     8vo.     Ed.     1854.     $9.00. 

Baur,  Ferd.  Christ.     The  Christians  and  the  Christian  Church  of 

the  First  Three  Centuries.     Tubingen,  1853.     2d  rev.  ed.,  1860 

(pp.  536).    The  3d  ed.  is  a  reprint  of  the  second,  forming  Vol.  I. 

of  Baur's  General  Church  History,  edited  by  his  son,  in  5  v.,  1863. 

Tr.  by  A.Menzies.    8vo.    2v.   L.    W.  &  N.    1878,1879.    10s.6d. 

"  The  last  and  ablest  exposition  of  the  Tubingen  reconstruction  of 

the  Apostolic  History  from  the  pen  of  the  master  of  that  school.  .  .  . 

Baur's  critical  researches  have  compelled  a  thorough  revision  of 

the  traditional  views  on  the  apostolic  age,  and  have  so  far  been 

useful,  notwithstanding  their  fundamental  errors."  —  P.  SCHAFF. 

Blunt,  J.  H.  A  Christian  View  of  Christian  History,  from  Apos- 
tolic to  Mediaeval  Times.  12mo.  L.  Rivingtons.  1866.  New 
edition,  1872.  Is.  Qd. 

Delitzsch,  Franz.  Jewish  Artizan  Life  in  the  Time  of  Jesus. 
Translated  by  Bernhard  Pick.  12mo.  N.Y.  Funk  &  WagnaUs. 
1884.  Paper,  15  cts.;  cloth,  75  cts. 

Scholarly;  but  entertaining  as  a  romance.    The  author  refers,  in 
foot-notes,  to  his  authorities.    Well  translated. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  351 

Ddllinger,  Johann  Joseph  Ignaz.  The  First  Age  of  Christianity. 
Translated  by  H.  N.  Oxenhams.  2  v.  8vo.  L.  1866.  $8.00. 
"  Dr.  Dollinger  has  long  been  held  as  one  of  the  ablest  historians 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church ;  and  this  work  may  be  regarded  as 
the  most  successful  representation  of  the  early  history  of  the 
Church  from  the  Catholic  point  of  view."  — C.  K.  ADAMS. 

Eusebius.  Ecclesiastical  History  (Greek).  Translated  by  C.  F. 
Cruse;  with  an  Historical  View  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  by  Isaac 
Boyle.  8vo.  L.,  1842.  Ph.,  1860.  Lip.  f2.50.  Another 
translation  in  Greek  Ecclesiastical  Historians  of  the  First  Six 
Centuries,  q.v. 

Eusebius,  "the  Christian  Herodotus,"  was  intimately  associated 
with  Constantino  the  Great.    Died  340. 

Farrar,  F.  W.  Early  Days  of  Christianity.  N.Y.  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails.  Paper,  40  cts. ;  cloth,  75  cts. 

A  standard  work. 

Fisher,  George  P.  The  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  with  a  View  of 
the  State  of  the  Roman  World  at  the  Birth  of  Christ.  8vo. 
pp.  580.  N.Y.  Scr.  1877.  $3.00. 

Scholarly,  but  popular.    In  this  volume  the  orthodox  but  liberal 
author  incidentally  discusses  the  theories  of  the  Tubingen  school. 

Id.   Supernatural  Origin  of  Christianity,  with  special  reference  to 
the  theories  of  Renan,  Strauss,  and  the  Tubingen  school.     8vo. 
pp.  620.    N.Y.     Scr.     New  and  enlarged  edition,  1870.     $3.00. 
Suited  to  the  needs  of  all  classes  of  readers.  Clear,  strong,  readable. 
Gibbon,  Edward.    Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.     See 
chapters  on  the  Growth  of  Christianity.     Numerous  editions. 
Contains  many  depreciatory  references  to  the  Christian  church. 
"To  counteract  the  influence  of  these  arguments  and  insinuations 
of  Gibbon,  both  Milman  and  Guizot  have  edited  special  editions 
of  this  history,  with  abundant  notes.    The  Student's  Gibbon,  pre- 
pared by    W.  Smith  in  a  similar  spirit,   is  an  edition   greatly 
abridged."  — N.  PORTER.    The  best  edition  is  Milman's. 

Hatch,  E.  The  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches. 
Bampton  Lectures  for  1880.  8vo.  pp.  216.  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge. Rivingtons.  1881.  10s.  Qd. 

Learned,  eloquent.    Shows  the  development  of  church  polity  from 

a  democracy  into  a  monarchy. 


352  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

Historians  (Greek)  of  the  First  Six  Centuries.  Translations  in 

Bohn's  Ecclesiastical  Library.    4  v.    8vo.    L.  1851.     Eusebius, 

Socrates,  Sozomen,  Theodoret,  and  Evagrius.  6  v.   L.  1843-47. 
$2.00  each. 

Cf.  Geo.  A.  Jackson :  The  Apostolic  Fathers  of  the  Second  Century, 
with  extracts,  pp.  203.  N.Y.  1878. 

Jackson,  Samuel  M.  Lipsius  on  the  Roman  Peter-Legend.  In  the 
Presb.  Quar.  and  Princeton  Rev.  (N.Y.)  for  1876.  p.  265  sqq. 

A  summary  of  the  views  of  R.  A.  Lipsius,  who  has  examined 
"carefully  the  heretical  sources  of  the  Roman  Peter-legend,  and 
regards  it  as  a  fiction  from  beginning  to  end." 

John,  St.     The  Fourth  Gospel. 

See  Baur,  Strauss,  Renan,  and  their  followers.  The  genuineness 
of  this  Gospel  has  been  defended  by  Priestley,  Andrews  &  Norton, 
Van  Oosterzee  (trans,  by  Hurst),  Lange  (Com.  trans,  by  Schaff), 
Sanday  (Authorship  and  Historical  Character  of  the  Fourth  Gos- 
pel, London,  1872),  Lirjhtfoot  (in  Cont.  Rev.,  1875-77),  George  P. 
Fisher  (Beginnings  of  Christianity,  chap,  x.,  and  art.  "  The  Fourth 
Gospel  "  in  the  Princeton  Rev.  for  July,  1881,  pp.  51-84),  Westcott 
(Introduction  to  the  Gospels,  1862,  1875,  and  Commentary,  1879), 
McClellan  (The  Four  Gospels,  1875),  Milligan  (in  the  Cont.  Rev. 
for  1867,  1868,  1871,  and  in  his  Moulton's  Commentary,  1880),  and 
Ezra  Abbot  (The  Authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  External  Evi- 
dences, Boston,  1880;  paper,  50  cents.  A  work  of  great  merit). 

Lightfoot,  J.  B.  In  Contemporary  Review,  1875-77.  A  series  of 
articles  against  "  Supernatural  Religion,"  q.v.  Cf.  the  reply  of 
the  anonymous  author  in  the  preface  to  the  sixth  edition  of  S.  R. 

Maurice,  F.  D.  Lectures  on  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  First 
and  Second  Centuries.  8vo.  Camb.,  1854.  L.  Macm.  $3.50. 

Milman,  Henry  Hart.  The  History  of  Christianity,  from  the  Birth 
of  Christ  to  the  Abolition  of  Paganism  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
3  v.  8vo,  L. ;  and  12mo,  N.Y.  New  and  revised  edition  :  N.Y. 
Armstrong.  1871.  $5.25. 

For  the  person  that  can  read  but  one  church  history,  this,  perhaps, 
is  the  best.  It  is  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of  enlightened  faith.  It 
treats  especially  of  the  relations  of  Christianity  to  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  353 

Mosheim,  J.  L.  History  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Period.  Translated 
from  the  Latin  by  Vidal.  3  v.  1813  sqq.  2  v.  New  Haven, 
1852.  New  edition.  2  v.  N.Y.,  1853. 

Neander,  J.  A.  W.  History  of  the  Planting  and  Training  of  the 
Christian  Church.  Translated  by  /.  E.  Ryland.  Ed.,  1842 ; 
and  in  Bohn's  Standard  Library,  L.,  1851 ;  reprinted  in  Ph., 
1844 ;  revised  by  E.  G.  Robinson,  N.Y.,  1865.  $4.00. 

"  This  book  marks  an  epoch,  and  is  still  valuable."  —  P.  SCHAFF. 

Priestley,  J.  General  History  of  the  Christian  Church  to  the  Fall 
of  the  Western  Empire.  In  Works,  Vols.  8-10. 

Pressense,  Edmund  de.  The  Early  Years  of  Christianity.  Trans- 
lated by  Annie  Harwood-Holmden.  4  v.  12mo.  L.,  Hodder  & 
Stoughton,  and  N.Y.  1870  and  1879.  $1.50. 

By  a  scholarly  Protestant  pastor.    Written  in  a  popular  style. 

Renan,  Ernest.   The  Apostles.    12mo.   N.Y.  Carleton.    1870.   $1.75. 
Id.     The  Influence  of  the  Institutions,  etc.,  of  Rome  upon  Christi- 
anity.    The  Hibbert  Lectures  for  1880.     L.     W.  &  N.     1880. 
$3.50. 

In  Kenan's  best  spirit.  He  shows,  clearly  and  conclusively,  that 
in  its  external  organization,  the  early  church  was  by  degrees  con- 
formed to  the  existing  institutions  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  that 
these  institutions  thus  have  been  perpetuated  to  the  present  day. 

Simcox,  Wm.  H.  Lectures  on  the  Beginnings  of  the  Christian 
Church.  12mo.  L.  1881.  $3.00. 

Supernatural  Religion,  an  Inquiry  into  the  Reality  of  Divine 
Revelation.  Anonymous.  L.,  1873;  2  v.,  8vo,  B.,  R.,  1875, 
$8.00;  7th  ed.,  "carefully  revised,"  1879,  3  v.,  8vo,  L.,  Longm., 
36s. 

"An  English  reproduction  and  repository  of  the  critical  specula- 
tions of  the  Tubingen  School  of  Baur,  Strauss,  Zeller,  Schwegler, 
Hilgenfeld,  Volkmar,  etc.  .  .  .  Dr.  Schiirer,  in  the  '  Theol.  Litera- 
tur  Zeitung'  for  1879,  No.  26  (p.  622),  denies  to  this  work  scientific 
value  for  Germany,  but  gives  it  credit  for  extraordinary  familiarity 
with  recent  German  literature,  and  great  industry  in  collecting 
historical  details.  Drs.  Lightfoot,  Sanday,  Ezra  Abbot,  and 
others,  have  exposed  the  defects  of  its  scholarship  and  the  false 
premises  from  which  the  writer  reasons."  —  P.  SCHAFF. 


354  A  SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF 

Taylor,  Isaac.  Ancient  Christianity  and  the  Doctrine  of  the  Ox- 
ford "  Tracts  for  the  Times."  Fourth  edition,  with  a  supple- 
ment. 2  v.  8vo.  L.  Bohn.  1844. 

By  an  Independent.  Polemic;  against  "Puseyism"  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church. 

Wadsworth,    Charles.      A   Church  History.      [To  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon,  A.D.  451.]     4  v.     12mo.     L.  and  N.Y.     1881(7). 
Vol.  I.,  $2.50 ;  II.,  III.,  and  IV.,  $2.00  each. 
Churchly;  not  critical. 

2.  CATACOMBS. 

The  best  original  authorities  are  in  Italian.  The  highest  is  Rossi. 
The  works  of  Padre-Marchi  and  Perret  are  superbly  illustrated. 
D'Agincourt  wrote  from  a  personal  knowledge  of  fifty  years. 

Lundy,  John  P.  Monumental  Christianity ;  or,  the  Art  and  Sym- 
bolism of  the  Primitive  Church  as  Witnesses  and  Teachers  of 
the  one  Catholic  Faith  and  Practice.  N.Y.  Bouton.  1876. 
New  edition ;  enlarged,  1882,  pp.  453.  Illustrated.  $7.50. 

The  writer  is  an  Episcopalian. 
Mommsen,   Theodor.     Roman   Catacombs,   in   The   Contemporary 

Review,  Vol.  XVII.  (1871),  pp.  160-175. 

Northcote,  J.  S.,  and  Brownlow,  W.  R.  Roma  Sotterranea.  L. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1869.  Second  edition,  "rewritten  and 
greatly  enlarged."  1879.  2  v.  $22.50. 

Northcote,  Canon  of  Birmingham,  and  Brownlow,  Canon  of  Ply- 
mouth, here  present  to  English  readers  the  results  of  Commendatore 
De  Rossi's  celebrated  researches.  The  book  is  liberally  illustrated 
with  chromo-lithographic  plates  and  with  wood  engravings. 

Northcote,  J.  Spencer.  Epitaphs  of  the  Catacombs;  or,  Christian 
Inscriptions  in  Rome  during  the  First  four  Centuries.  L. 
Burns  &  Gates.  10s.  (Vol.  III.  of  B.  &  O.'s  edition  of  Roma 
Sotterranea.  Vols.  I.  and  II.  £1  4s.  each.) 

Parker,  John  Henry.  The  Archaeology  of  Rome.  Illustrated.  Ox- 
ford and  L.  1877.  (Parts  IX.  and  X.,  $6.00;  and  XII.,  $6.00.) 
Standard.  Consult,  also,  Kip,  Maitland,  McCaul,  Stanley  (in  his 
Christian  Institutions),  Smyth  (pamphlet,  1882),  Stokes  (in  Con- 
temporary Review,  1880,  1881),  Venables  (in  Smith  and  Cheetham, 
i.  294r-317),  Marriott,  and  Withrow. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY. 

3.   CHARITY. 

Uhlhorn,    Gerhard.      Christian  Charity  in   the  Ancient  Church. 
8vo.     N.Y.     Scr.     $2.50. 

The  best  work  on  the  subject.  Cf .  Chastel :  Charity  of  the  Primi- 
tive Churches.  Trans,  by  G.  A.  Matiles.  Ph.  Lip.  1857.  81.25. 

4.   CONTROVERSIES  AND  HERESIES. 

Dollinger,  J.  J.  I.     Hippolytus  and  Callistus.     In  German,  1853. 

Translated  by  A  I/red  Plummer.   8vo.    Ed.  1876.  pp.360.    $3.60. 

"  An  apology  for  Callistus  and  the  Roman  See  against  Hippolytus, 

the  supposed  first  anti-Pope."    See  Wordsworth  for  a  defence  of 

Hippolytus. 

Mansel,  Henry  L.     The  Gnostic  Heresies.     Edited  by  J.  B.  Light- 
foot.     L.     Murray.     1875.     $4.75. 

Mansel  was  dean  of  St.  Paul's.  Cf.  Dr.  LightfooCs  Excursus  in  his 
Commentary  on  Colossians  and  Philemon  for  a  satisfactory  account 
of  Gnosticism.  C.  W.  King's  Gnostics  and  their  Remains  (L.,  1864) 
contains  illustrations  of  Gnostic  symbols  and  works  of  art.  See, 
also,  Norton :  History  of  the  Gnostics.  B.  1845. 

Newman,  J.  H.     The  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century.     L.     1838. 

Second   edition,  unchanged,   1854;    third  edition,   12mo.      L. 

1871.     $3.50. 
De  Soyres,  J.     Montanism  and  the  Primitive  Church :  a  Study  in 

the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Second  Century.     (Hulsean 

Prize  Essay,  1877.)    8vo.    pp.  163.    L.    Bell  &  Son.   1878.   6s. 

5.  PATRISTICS. 

Donaldson,  James.     A  Critical  History  of  Christian  Literature  and 
Doctrine  from  the  Death  of  the  Apostles  to  the  Nicene  Council. 
L.,  1864-66.     8vo,  3  v.,  L.,  Macm.,  1874.     $3.00. 
Valuable.    Cf .  Blunt  and  Jackson. 

6.  PERSECUTIONS. 

Mason,  A.  J.     The  Persecutions  of  Diocletian.     (Hulsean   Prize 
Essay,  1874.)    8vo.    pp.  370.    L.    Bell  &  Sons.    1876.    10s.  Qd. 
In  defence  of  Diocletian. 


356  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGKAPHY   OF 

Uhlhorn,  Gerhard.  The  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism. 
Translated  by  Egbert  C.  Smyth  and  J.  C.  H.  Ropes.  8vo. 
pp.  508.  N.Y.  Scr.  $2.50. 


IV.   MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTIANITY. 
1.  GENERAL. 

Bryce,  James.  The  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Seventh  edition,  12mo. 
pp.  xxvii,  479.  N.Y.  Macm.  1877.  $3.00. 

Standard.  An  excellent  introduction  to  mediaeval  history,  both 
ecclesiastical  and  secular. 

Church,  R.  W.  The  Beginnings  of  the  Middle  Ages.  With  three 
Maps.  16mo.  L.  and  N.Y.  Longm.  1877.  $1.00. 

Small,  but  readable  and  instructive.  Discusses  the  relation  of  the 
Franks  to  the  Church,  and  the  ecclesiastico-political  relations  of 
Gregory  the  Great,  Charlemagne,  and  Otto  the  Great. 

Creighton,  M.  A  History  of  the  Papacy  during  the  Period  of  the 
Reformation.  8vo.  2  v.  L.,  Longm. ;  B.,  Houghton,  Mifflin 
&  Co.  1S82.  $10.00. 

The  volumes  treat  of  the  events  that  led  to  the  Reformation.  Vol. 
II.  ends  with  the  death  of  Pius  II.,  in  1464. 

Greene,  G.  W.     Lectures  on  the  Middle  Ages.    12mo.    N.Y.   App. 

$1.50. 

"  A  useful  and  trustworthy  manual."  —  N.  PORTER. 

Hallam,  Henry.  State  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  8vo. 
N.Y.  H.  |2.00.  Student's  edition,  12mo,  $1.25. 

"  Though  exceedingly  dry  and  condensed  in  its  matter  and  manner, 
it  is  indispensable,  even  to  a  general  reader."  —  N.  PORTER. 
Hardwick,  C.     A  History  of  the  Christian  Church.     Middle  Ages. 

L.    Macm.     $2.25. 

Lacroix,  Paul.  Works  on  the  Middle  Ages.  5  v.  Imperial  8vo. 
L.  1880.  N.Y.  App.  $12.00  per  volume. 

The  title  of  the  third  volume  is  "  Military  and  Religious  Life  in  the 
Middle  Ages  and  at  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance."  Well  translated, 
and  richly  illustrated.  In  collecting  materials  for  his  work,  the 
author  made  good  use  of  his  opportunities  as  curator  of  the  Im- 
perial Library  at  the  Arsenal  of  Paris. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  357 

Milman,  Henry  Hart.  History  of  Latin  Christianity.  Including 
that  of  the  Popes  to  the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.  (For  price, 
etc.,  see  under  General  Church  History,  European.) 

"  To  the  student  of  the  middle  ages  this  work  is  second  in  import- 
ance only  to  that  of  Gibbon.  ...  Of  the  numerous  works  on  the 
history  of  the  church  in  the  Middle  Ages,  this  will  generally  be 
found  at  once  the  most  readable,  the  most  impartial,  and  the  most 
satisfactory."— C.  K.  ADAMS. 

Trench,  Richard  C.  Lectures  on  Mediaeval  Church  History.  Being 
the  substance  of  lectures  delivered  at  Queen's  College,  London. 
8vo.  N.Y.  Scr.  1878.  $3.00. 

"  A  good  popular  sketch."  —  W.  F.  ALLEN. 

Ullmann,  C.  Reformers  before  the  Reformation.  Principally  in 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands :  I.  John  of  Goch ;  II.  John  of 
Wesel ;  III.  The  Brethren  of  the  Common  Lot  and  the  German 
Mystics;  IV.  John  Wessel.  Translated  by  Robert  Menzies. 
2  v.  8vo.  pp.  xxv,  416;  xiv,  636.  Ed.  T.  &  T.  Clark. 
1855.  $3.00  per  volume. 

Woodhouse,  F.  C.  Military  Religious  Orders  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Soc.  1879.  3s.  6d. 

2.  CELIBACY  OF  THE  CLERGY. 

Lea,  Henry  C.  Historical  Sketches  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy  in  the 
Christian  Church.  8vo.  pp.  601.  B.  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
1884.  Ph.  Lip.  $3.75. 

Highly  valued,  as  embodying  the    results  of    independent    and 

thorough  research. 

3.  CRUSADES. 
(See  Appendix,  p.  386.) 

4.  LOLLARDS. 

Wyckliffe,  John  de.     Apology  for  Lollard  Poctrine,  attributed  to 
Wyckliffe.     With  introduction  and  notes  by  J.  H.  Todd.     4to. 
L.     Camden  Soc.     1842. 
See  Biography,  Wyckliffe. 


858  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OP 

5.  MYTHS. 

Baring-Gould,  S.  Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages.  12mo, 
L.,  1866 ;  16mo,  B.,  R.,  1880.  $1.50. 

"  The  book  is  instructive,  but  it  entertains  and  amuses  even  more 
than  it  instructs."  —  C.  K.  ADAMS. 

Cox,  George  W.,  and  Jones,  E.  H.  Popular  Romances  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  First  American,  from  the  second  London,  edition. 
8vo.  N.Y.  Holt  &  Co.  1880.  $2.25. 

"  Probably  the  most  valuable  of  the  several  manuals  on  the  subject 
of  the  folk-lore  of  Europe."  —  C.  K.  ADAMS. 

Dollinger,  J.  J.  I.  Fables  Respecting  the  Popes  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  together  with  Dr.  Dollinger's  essay  on  the  Prophetic 
Spirit  and  the  Prophecies  of  the  Christian  Era.  Translated 
by  Alfred  Plummer,  with  an  introduction  and  notes  by  H.  B. 
Smith.  12mo.  N.Y.  Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co.  1872.  $2.25. 

6.  WALDENSES. 

Wylie,  J.  A .  History  of  the  Waldenses.  L.  Cassell.  2d  edition. 
1880.  $1.25. 

Worsfold,  J.  N.  The  Vaudois  of  Piedmont,  A  Visit  to  their  Val- 
leys, with  a  Sketch  of  their  History  to  the  Present  Date.  8vo. 
L.  J.  F.  Shaw  &  Co.  1873.  3s. 


V.   MODERN   CHRISTIANITY. 
1.  GENERAL  HISTORIES  OF  THE  REFORMATION  PERIOD. 

Balmes,  James.  European  Civilization :  Protestantism  and  Cathol- 
icism Compared  in  their  Effects  on  the  Civilization  of  Europe, 
8vo.  16th  edition.  Baltimore.  Murphy.  1850.  $2.50. 

By  a  learned  Spanish  priest,  whose  purpose  in  writing  was  to 
refute  Guizot's  reflections  upon  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Con- 
troversial. Contains  interesting  chapters  on  "  Tolerance  in  Matters 
of  Religion,"  "The  Right  of  Coercion,"  and  "The  Inquisition  in 
Spain." 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  359 

Bossuet,  J.  B.  The  History  of  the  Variations  of  the  Protestant 
Churches.  Translated  from  the  last  French  edition.  2  v.  8vo. 
pp.  432,  424.  Dublin.  R.  Coyne.  1829. 

Translated  from  the  classic  French  of  a  celebrated  Roman  Catholic 

prelate. 

D'Aubigne,  J.  H.  Merle.  History  of  the  Great  Reformation  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  etc.  Translated 
from  the  French.  5  v.  12mo.  N.Y.  Carter  Bros.  1846,  etc. 

qprr«Ov/« 

The  most  widely  read,  but  by  no  means  the  best,  history  of  the 
Reformation.  C.  K.  Adams  justly  pronounces  it  "  simply  one  side 
of  a  great  question,  presented  with  great  power  by  a  skilful  and 
brilliant  advocate."  D'Aubigne  was  an  ardent  Protestant. 

Fisher,  George  P.  The  Reformation.  8vo.  N.Y.  Scr.  1873. 
$3.00. 

Perhaps  the  best  short  history  of  the  Reformation. 

Froude,J.A.  Short  Studies.  12mo.  3  v.  N.Y.  Scr.  f  1.50  each. 
Contain  essays  on  "Erasmus  and  Luther,"  "Influence  of  the 
Reformation  on  Scottish  Character,"  "  Philosophy  of  Catholicism," 
and  on  "Calvinism." 

Hagenbach,  K.  R.    Hist,  of  the  Ref.  in  Ger.  and  Switzerland  chiefly. 

Tr.  from  the  4th  rev.  ed.  of  the  (Jer.  by  Evelina  Moore.   2  v.  8vo. 

Vol.  1,  1878,  pp.  422 ;  vol.  2,  1879,  pp.  436.    Ed.   T.  &  T.  Clark. 

10*.  Qd.  each. 

See  also  his  Hist,  of  the  Church  in  the  18th  and  19th  Centuries,  tr.  by 
John  F.  Hurst.  8vo.  2  v.  pp.  504, 489.  N.Y.  Scr.  1869.  L.  Hodder 
&Stoughton.  1870.  §6.00. 

Hardwick,  C.     The  Reformation.     8vo.    L.    Macm.     1873.    $2.25. 

Hausser,  Ludwig.  Period  of  the  Reformation  (1517-1648).  12mo. 
L.  and  N.Y.  1874.  82.50. 

"  A  course  of  lectures  of  high  scholarship  and  historic  insight."  — 
W.  F.  ALLEN.  Eleven  of  the  fifty  lectures  discuss  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  Not  controversial.  The  book  is  translated  by  Mrs. 
G.  Sturye,  and  edited  by  Prof.  Win.  Oncken. 

Hurst,  John  F.  Short  History  of  the  Reformation,  pp.  120.  N.Y. 
H.  1884.  40  cts. 

The  shortest  history  of  the  Reformation,  and,  for  a  beginner,  the 
best.  It  contains  portraits  and  maps. 


360  A   SELECT    BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

Ranke,  Leopold  von.  The  History  of  the  Popes,  their  Church  and 
State,  and  especially  of  their  Conflicts  with  Protestantism  in 
the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  Translated  by  E. 
Foster,  3  v.,  12mo,  L.,  1840.  Translated  by  Sarah  Austin,  3  v., 
8vo,  pp.  385,  414,  481.  L.,  Murray,  1866.  L.,  Bell.  $3.75. 

"First  published  as  early  as  1837,  this  great  work  did  more  than 
any  other  to  raise  its  author  to  that  supreme  rank  among  historians,, 
which  he  has  now  long  enjoyed.  ...  As  a  portrayal  of  the  interioi 
policy  of  the  church,  and  of  the  course  that  led  to  the  reaction 
against  the  Reformation,  these  volumes  have  no  equal."  —  C.  K. 
ADAMS. 

Seebohm,  Frederic.  The  Era  of  the  Protestant  Revolution.  Sec- 
ond edition,  with  notes  on  books  in  English  relating  to  the 
Reformation,  by  George  P.  Fisher.  16mo.  N.Y.  Scr.  1875. 
$1.00. 

"  A  convenient  and  popular  summary.  .  .  .  The  book  is  less  com- 
prehensive in  scope  and  less  able  in  manner  of  treatment,  than  the 
work  of  Hausser."  — C.  K.  ADAMS.  The  book  is  one  of  the  Epochs 
of  History  series. 

Spalding,  M.  J.  History  of  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland ;  and  in  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  the 
Netherlands,  France,  and  Northern  Europe.  8vo.  Baltimore 
and  N.Y.  1860.  Many  other  editions.  $3.50. 

By  the  late  archbishop  of  Baltimore.  Intended  as  a  reply  to 
D'Aubigne.  "  It  is  consequently  too  controversial  to  be  of  the 
greatest  historical  value,  but  it  is  scarcely  more  one-sided  than  the 
work  of  D'Aubigne',  and  it  is  perhaps  the  strongest  presentation  we 
have  of  the  Catholic  side  of  the  Reformation."  — C.  K.  ADAMS. 


2.  THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 
I.   General. 

Wiseman,  (Cardinal)  N.  Recollections  of  the  last  four  Popes  and 
of  Rome  in  their  Times.  12mo.  N.Y.  P.  O'Shea.  4  v. 
$1.50  each. 

See   under   the    Reformation    Period,    Church    and    State,    and 

Councils. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  361 

II.    The  Inquisition. 

"The  Catholic  Inquisition  is  best  described  by  Llorente,  is  most 
heartily  justified  by  Balmes,  and  most  vigorously  denounced  by 
Buckle."  —  C.  K.  ADAMS. 

Llorente,  D.  Jean  Antoine.  The  History  of  the  Inquisition  of 
Spain,  from  the  time  of  the  Establishment  to  the  Reign  of  Fer- 
dinand VII.  Composed  from  the  original  documents  in  the 
archives  of  the  Supreme  Council,  and  from  those  of  subordinate 
tribunals  of  the  Holy  Office.  8vo.  L.  1826. 

An  abridged  translation  from  the  Spanish.  There  is  no  more 
authentic  history  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition. 

Rule,  William  H.  History  of  the  Inquisition,  from  its  Establish- 
ment in  the  Twelfth  Century  to  its  Extinction  in  the  Nineteenth. 
2  v.  Svo.  L.  Hamilton.  1S74.  25s. 

By  a  Wesleyan  minister.    Controversial,  but  fair,  and  ably  written. 

III.  Jansenists. 

Neale,  J.  M.  History  of  the  so-called  Jansenist  Church  of  Hol- 
land. Svo.  Oxford.  Parker.  1858.  5s. 

Tregelles,  S.  P.  The  Jansenists :  their  Rise,  Persecutions  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  Existing  Remnant.  12mo.  L.  Bagster.  1851.  $1.60. 

IV.  Jesuits. 
Carlyle,  Thomas.     See  his  essay  on  Jesuitism  in  his  "  Latter-day 

Pamphlets."     Svo.     L.     C.  &  H.     9s. 

Macaulay,  T.  B.  See  his  essay  on  Ranke,  in  which  he  maintains 
that  the  Jesuits,  in  their  history,  represent  the  Catholic  reaction 
from  the  Protestant  Reformation. 

Stephen,  (Sir)  James.  See  his  essay  on  Loyala,  in  Ecclesiastical 
Essays. 

' '  The  best  brief  account  of  the  rise  of  the  Jesuits.' '  —  C.  K.  ADAMS. 

V.  Port  Royalists. 

Beard,   Charles.     Port  Royal.     A  Contribution  to  the  History  of 
Religion  and  Literature  in  France.     New  edition.     2  v.     Svo. 
L.    W.  &  X.     1873.     $4.80. 
Cf.  Stephen's  Essays. 


362  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OP 

VI.   Ultramontanism  and  Vaticanism. 
(See  Church  and  State,  under  Special  Topics.) 

3.  OLD  CATHOLIC. 

u  Theodorus."    The  New   Reformation ;    a  narrative  of  the  Old 
Catholic  movement  from  1870  to  the  present  time,  with  an 
historical  introduction.     8vo.     L.     Longm.(?)     12s. 
For  periodical  literature,  consult  Poole's  Index. 

4.  MODERN  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY,  BY  COUNTRIES. 

I.  Bohemia. 

Gillelt,  E.  H.  The  Life  and  Times  of  John  Huss ;  or,  the  Bohe- 
mian Reformation  of  the  Fifteenth  Century.  2  v.  8vo.  pp. 
632,  651.  B.,  Gould  &  Lincoln,  1863 ;  N.Y.,  Randolph.  $7.00. 

II.  England.  —  A.  The  Church  of  England  established  by  Law. 

Bede.     Historia  Ecclesiastica.     Oxford.     1846.     In  Bohn's   Anti- 
quarian Library,  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  $2.00. 
Blunt,  J.  H.     The  Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England.     2  v. 
N.Y.     Young.    $8.50. 

"  The  best  complete  history.    Extends  from  1514  to  1662.    From 
the  point  of  view  of  the  Church  of  England."  —  W.  F.  ALLEN. 

Id.     Sketch  of  the  Reformation  in  England.     Young.     $1.50. 
Cobbett.     Reformation  in  England  and  Ireland.    12mo.    Baltimore, 
Murphy,  1851,  75  da.;  N.Y.,  Sadlier,  $1.25. 

Roman  Catholic.    Wholly  unsympathetic. 

Diocesan  Histories.  Maps.  [Canterbury,  Chichester,  Durham, 
Sheffield,  Oxford,  Peterborough,  Salisbury,  Worcester,  York.] 
L.  Soc.  N.Y.  Young.  2s.  Qd.  each,  except  Canterbury  and 
York,  3s.  Qd. 

Valuable.    Intended  to  form  a  complete  library  of  English  Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

Dixon,  R.  W.  History  of  the  Church  of  England.  2  v.  Rout- 
ledge.  16s.  each. 

"The  most  thorough  and  important  work;  not  yet  completed."  — 
W.  F.  ALLEN, 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  363 

Fuller,  Thomas  [edited  by  J.  S.  Brewer].  The  Church  History  of 
Britain;  from  the  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ  until  the  year  1648, 
etc.  6  v.  8vo.  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford.  1845.  £1  19s. 

Geikie,  Cunningham.  The  English  Reformation,  How  it  came 
about  and  why  we  should  uphold  it.  12mo.  pp.  xviii,  512. 
N.Y.  App.  1869  and  1879.  82.00. 

Haddan  and  Stul/bs.  Councils  and  Ecclesiastical  Documents  relat- 
ing to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  8vo.  3  v.  pp.  704,  285, 
660.  Oxford.  Clarendon  Press.  1869-78.  Vols.  1  and  2,  £1  Is. 
each;  vol.  2,  part  1,  10s.  6d. ;  vol.  2,  part  2,  3s.  6rf. 

Herford,  Brook.  The  Story  of  Religion  in  England.  12mo.  pp. 
391.  Ch.  Jansen,  McClurg,  &  Co.  $1.50. 

Perry,  G.  G.     A  History  of  the  Church  of  England  from  the  Ac- 
cession of  Henry  VIII.  to  the  Silencing  of  Convocation  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century.    With  an  Appendix  containing  a  Sketch  of 
the  History  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  by  J.  A.  Spencer.  8vo.  N.Y.  H.  1879.  $2.50. 
Excellent.    "  The  best  that  has  yet  been  written."— N.Y.  CHURCH- 
MAN. 

Short,  (Bp.)  Thomas  V.  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Church  of 
England,  to  the  Revolution,  1688.  8th  edition.  8vo.  L. 
Longm.  1870.  7s.  Qd. 

Stanley,  A.  P.  Historical  Memorials  of  Canterbury  Cathedral. 
8vo.  L.  Murray.  1855.  5th  edition,  1869.  7s.  Qd. 

Id.     Historical  Memorials  of  Westminster  Abbey.    8vo.    L.    Mur- 
ray.    1867.     4th  edition,  1874.     15s. 
Important;  entertaining. 

Strype,  J.  Works :  Ecclesiastical  Memorials,  Annals,  etc.  [Orig. 
fol.  1694-1733.] 

An  excellent  edition  is  that  of  the  Clarendon  Press,  1820-28,  8vo, 
27  v.,  including  two  index  volumes,  £7  13s.  6d.    Important. 

For  histories  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  see  Liturgies. 

B.  Dissenters.  » 

Neal,  Daniel.  The  History  of  the  Puritans ;  or,  Protestant  Non- 
Conformists,  from  the  Reformation  (1517)  to  the  Revolution  in 


364  A 

1688.  Reprinted  from  the  Text  of  Dr.  Toulmin's  edition,  with 
his  life  of  the  author,  etc.  Revised,  corrected,  and  enlarged. 
3  v.,  8vo,  L.,  Tegg,  1837;  and  with  notes  by  J.  0,  Choules,  2  v., 
8vo,  N.Y.,  H.,  1863.  $4.00. 

See  Denominational  Histories  of  the  United  States,  for  American 
churches  having  their  origin  in  England. 

III.  France. 

Baird,  Henry  M.  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots  of  France. 
Maps.  2v.  8vo.  N.Y.  Scr.  1879.  $3.50. 

"An  excellent  account .  .  .  from  .  .  .  1515  to  ...  1574.  . . .  Written 
with  judicial  moderation."  —  C.  K.  ADAMS. 

Poole,  Reginald  Lane.     A  History  of  the  Huguenots  of  the  Disper- 
sion at  the  Recall  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.     12mo.    L.     Macm 
1880.     6s. 

"  A  very  learned,  and  a  very  successful,  attempt  to  show  what  be- 
came of  the  Huguenots  after  the  dispersion."  — C.  K.  ADAMS. 

Pressense',  E.  de.     Religion  and  the  Reign  of  Terror ;  or,  the  Church 
during  the  French  Revolution.     Translated  by  J.  P.  Lacroix. 
12mo.     pp.  416.     N.Y.     Carlton  and  Lanahan.     1869.    $1.75. 
Smiles,  S.     The  Huguenots  in  France.     8vo.     N.Y.     H.     $2.00. 
Id.     The  Huguenots  in  England,   Ireland,  and  America.     8vo. 

N.Y.     H.    f2.00. 

Weiss,  Charles.  History  of  the  French  Protestant  Refugees. 
Translated  from  the  French  by  H.  W.  Herbert.  With  an 
American  Appendix.  2  v.  8vo.  pp.  382,  419.  N.Y.  Stringer 
&  Townsend.  1854. 

A  fine  work,  well  translated. 

White,  Henry.  The  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  preceded  by  a 
History  of  the  Religious  Wars  in  the  Reign  of  Charles  IX. 
With  illustrations.  8vo.  N.Y.  H.  1871.  $1.75. 

"  Written  in  a  judicious  spirit.  .  .  .  Adopts  the  view  of  Ranke  and 
of  Soldan  in  believing  that  the  famous  massacre  was  not  the  result 
of  a  loug^-premeditated  plot.  .  .  .  Many  new  materials  tending  to 
confirm  this  view.  .  .  .  The  book,  however,  does  not  show  the 
same  intellectual  grasp  as  that  manifested  in  the  pages  of  Baird." 
—  C.  K.  ADAMS. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  365 

IV.   Germany, 

Lloyd,  Julius.  Sketches  of  Church  History  in  Germany.  L.  Soc. 
1882.  Is.  Qd. 

See,  also,  Doctrines,  Biography,  and  General  Histories  of  the  Refor- 
mation Period. 

V.  Holland. 

Martyn,  W.  C.  The  Dutch  Reformation :  a  History  of  the  Struggle 
in  the  Netherlands  for  Civil  and  Religious  Liberty  in  the  Six- 
teenth Century.  12mo.  pp.  823.  N.Y.  American  Tract 
Society.  1868.  $1.75. 

VI.  Hungary. 

D'Aubigne,  J.  H.  Merle.  History  of  the  Protestant  Church  in 
Hungary  to  1850.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  J.  Craig,  D.D.,  with 
an  introduction  by  J.  H.  Merle  D'Aubigne,  D.D.  8vo.  pp. 
xxviii,  464.  L.  J.  Nisbet  &  Co.  1844. 

VII.  Ireland. 

Mant,  Richard.  History  of  the  Church  of  Ireland,  from  the  Refer 
mation  to  the  Revolution,  with  a  Preliminary  Survey  from  the 
Papal  Usurpation  in  the  Twelfth  Century  to  its  legal  abolition 
in  the  Sixteenth.  Large  8vo.  2  v.  pp.  809, 844.  L.  Parker. 
1845.  17s  each. 

VIII.  Italy. 

Baird,  Robt.      Sketches  of  Protestantism  in   Italy.     12mo.     B. 

1845.     $1.75. 
McCrie,   Thos.     History  of  the  Progress  and  Suppression  of  the 

Reformation  in  Italy  in  the  Sixteenth  Century.     Including  a 

Sketch  of   the   History  of  the   Reformation  in  the  Grisons. 

12mo.     Ph.     Presb.  Bd.  of  Pub.     $1.00. 

IX.  Poland. 

fcrasinski,  Valerian.  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Rise,  Progress,  and 
Decline  of  the  Reformation  in  Poland.  2  v.  8vo.  pp.  xxi, 
415;  xxiii,  573.  L.  Murray.  1838. 


366  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF 

X.  Scandinavia. 

Crichton,  A.,  and  Wheaton,  H.  Scandinavia,  Ancient  and  Modern : 
being  a  History  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway ;  compre- 
hending ...  an  account  of  the  Mythology  .  .  .  Religion,  etc. 
2v.  16mo.  pp.  xvii,  373;  x,  403.  N.Y.  H.  1872.  $1.50. 

XI.  Scotland. 

Lawrence,  E.  The  Scottish  Covenanters,  pp.  14.  Harper's  Maga- 
zine, v.  46,  1873,  p.  103. 

Stanley,  A.  P.  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Church  in  Scotland. 
8vo.  pp.  180.  L.  Murray.  1872.  7s.  Qd. 

"  Delighted  the  moderate  and  liberal,  but  displeased  the  orthodox" 
people  of  Scotland. 

XII,  Spain. 

McCrie,  Thos.  History  of  the  Progress  and  Suppression  of  the 
Reformation  in  Spain  in  the  Sixteenth  Century.  8vo.  pp.  viii, 
424.  Ed.  Blackwood  &  Son.  1829. 

Cf.  Prescott's  History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip  II. 

Yonge,  (Miss)  C.  M.     Christians  and  Moors  of  Spain.    L.    Macm. 
$1.25.     N.Y.     H.     Paper.     10  cents. 
A  popular  sketch. 

XIII.  Switzerland. 

D'Aubigne,  J.  H.  Merle.    Reformation  in  Switzerland.    2  v.    1864. 
See  Biographies  of  Calvin,  Servetus,  and  Zwinglius. 

XIV.   United  States  of  America.  —  A.  General. 

Baird,  Robert.  Religion  in  America.  8vo.  pp.  338.  N.Y.  H. 
1844.  $3.00. 

By  a  Presbyterian  minister.    The  best  book  on  the  subject. 
Belcher,   Joseph.      The   Religious   Denominations   in   the   United 
States.      Illustrated.     New  and  revised  edition.     Large  8vo. 
pp.  1024.     Ph.     John  E.  Potter.     1861.     $5.00. 

A  voluminous  and  somewhat  crude  work,  which  is,  nevertheless, 
useful  for  reference.  It  contains  many  extracts  from  official  docu- 
ments uot  elsewhere  easily  accessible. 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  367 

Mather,  Cotton.  Magnalia  Christi  Americana.  [1702.]  With 
notes  and  translations  by  Robbins  and  Robinson.  2  v.  8vo. 
pp.  622,  682.  Hartford.  S.  Andrews  &  Son.  1853. 

Confined  chiefly  to  New  England.     Editions  without  critical  notes 

are  misleading. 

Rupp,  I.  D.     An  Original  History  of  the  Religious  Denominations 

in  the  United  States.    8vo.    pp.  734.    Ph.    Humphreys.    1844. 

Chapters  contributed  by  prominent  members  of  the  several  churches. 

Sprague,  William  B.     Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit.     8  v.     8vo. 

N.Y.     1859-65. 

Biographical;  impartial.  Vols.  1  and  2, Trinitarian  Congregation- 
alists;  vols.  3  and  4,  Presbyterians;  vol.  5,  Episcopalians;  vol.  6, 
Baptists;  vol.  7,  Methodists;  vol.  8,  Unitarians.  There  is  a  later 
edition  published  by  Carter  in  9  v.  (§36.00). 

B.  Denominational. 
BAPTIST. 

Backus,  I.  History  of  New  England,  with  Particular  Reference  to 
the  Denomination  of  Christians  called  Baptists.  8vo.  B., 
1777;  Providence,  1784;  B.,  1796;  Newton,  1871.  2  v.  pp.  x, 
538;  vi,  584.  Ph.  Am.  Bap.  Pub.  Society.  90  cents. 

Moss,  Lemuel  [Ed.].  The  Baptists  and  the  National  Centenary.  A 
Record  of  Christian  Work.  8vo.  Ph.  1876.  $1.75. 

Stewart,  J.  D.  The  History  of  the  Free  Will  Baptists,  for  Half  a 
Century.  12mo.  pp.  479.  Dover,  N.H.  Free  Will  Baptist 
Printing  Establishment.  1862. 

CHRISTIAN. 

Summerbell,  N.  History  of  the  Christians.  Dayton,  O.  Christian 
Publishing  Association. 

CONGREGATIONAL. 
Bacon,  Leonard.     The   Genesis  of  the  New  England  Churches. 

8vo.     N.Y.     H.     $2.50. 

Dexter,  Henry  Martyn.  Congregationalism.  8vo.  pp.  1082.  N.Y. 
H.  1880.  $6.00. 

A  complete  bibliography  is  appended.  Cf .  Waddington  (London, 
1880)  and  Punchard  (Boston,  1865-80).  These  three  are  the  best 
authorities  on  general  Congregational  history. 


368  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGHAPHY   OF 

FRIENDS. 

Hodgson,  Wm.     The  Society  of  Friends  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
8vo.     2  v.    pp.  349,  441.     Ph.     Smith,  English  &  Co.     1875- 
Cf .  Perm  and  Wagstaff. 

LUTHERAN. 

Schmucker,  S.  S.  The  American  Lutheran  Church,  Historically, 
Doctrinally,  and  Practically  Delineated  in  Several  Occasional 
Discourses.  12mo.  Ph.  1852.  75  cents. 

Cf.  Hazeline  (Zanesville,  O.,  1846)  and  Cong.  Quar.,  1862,  article 

Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States. 

Seiss,  Joseph  A.  Ecclesia  Lutheran  a.  A  Brief  Survey  of  the 
Lutheran  Church.  32d  edition.  12ino.  Ph.  Luth.  Bd.  of 
Pub.  1867.  (Cf .  Krauth.  $5.00.) 

METHODIST. 

Simpson,  Matthew.     Cyclopedia  of  Methodism.     Revised  edition. 
4to.     pp.  1031.     Ph.     L.  H.  Evarts.     1880. 
Valuable  as  a  work  of  reference. 

Stevens,  Abel.  History  of  Methodism.  3  v.  12mo.  N.Y.  Meth- 
odist Book  Concern.  1858-61.  $4.50. 

Jd.  History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  4  v.  12mo.  N.Y.  Methodist  Book  Con- 
cern. 1864.  $6.00. 

Dr.  Stevens  is  the  highest  authority  on  Methodist  history. 

Wood,  E.  M.  Methodism  and  the  Centennial  of  American  Inde- 
pendence. With  a  brief  History  of  the  Various  Branches  of 
Methodism,  and  full  Statistical  Tables.  12mo.  pp.  412.  N.Y. 
Nelson  &  Phillips.  1876.  $1.50. 

Cf .  Atkinson,  John :  Centennial  History  of  American  Methodism, 

N.Y.,  1884.    $2.00. 

MORMON. 
Stenhouse,    (Mrs.)    T.  B.  H.     Rocky  Mountain   Saints :    History 

of  the  Mormons.     8vo.     pp.  xxiv,  761.     N.Y.     App.     1873. 

$5.00. 
Tucker,  Pomeroy.      Origin,    Rise,   and   Progress   of   Mormonism. 

12mo.     N.Y.     App.     1867.     $1.25. 


ECCLESIASTICAL,   HISTORY.  369 

MORAVIAN. 

Schweinitz,  E.  de.  The  Moravian  Manual,  containing  an  Account 
of  the  Protestant  Church  of  the  Moravian  United  Brethren. 
12mo.  Ph.  1869.  81.00. 

Cf.  Reichel,  Memorials.    Ph.,  Lip.,  1870. 

PRESBYTERIAN. 
Gilletl,  E.  H.     History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 

States  of  America.     2  v.     Ph.     1864.     $5.00. 
Hodge,  Charles.     The  Constitutional  History  of  the  Presbyterian 

Church  in  the  United  States.     8vo.     Ph.     Presb.  Bd.  of  Pub. 

83.00, 
Presbyterian  Reunion:  A  Memorial  Volume,  1837-1871.     By  the 

Rev.  Drs.  Miller,  Stearns,  Sprague,  Humphrey,  Adams,  Jacobus, 

Fowler,  Hall,  Irving,  Hatjield,  and  Knox,  and  the  Rev.  G.  S. 

Plumley.     Illustrated.     Large  8vo.     pp.  568.     N.Y.     Lent  & 

Co.     1870. 

Valuable  for  the  history  of  Old  School  and  New  School  Presby- 
terian Churches  from  the  separation  in  1837  to  the  reunion  in  1871. 

PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL. 

Perry,  W.  S.  [editor  in  chief].  The  History  of  the  American 
Episcopal  Church,  1587-1883.  2  v.  4to.  Illus.  B.  O. 

In  course  of  preparation.    It  will  surpass  all  existing  histories  of 

the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 

Wilberforce,    (Bp.)    S.     A   History   of  the   Protestant    Episcopal 
Church  in   America.     2d  edition.     12mo.     N.Y.     Stanford  & 
Swords.     1846.     12mo.     pp.  357.     1849.     Pott.     $3.50. 
Cf.  White's  Memoirs,  1836,  and  Hawk's  Contributions,  1836. 

REFORMED  EPISCOPAL. 

4.ycrigg,  Benjamin.  Memoirs  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church, 
and  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  with  Contemporary 
Reports  respecting  these  and  the  Church  of  England,  extracted 
from  the  Public  Press.  5th  edition.  8vo.  pp.  Ixvi,  373.  N.Y. 
and  Passaic,  N.J.  Aycrigg.  1880. 

A  collection  of  materials.  Indexed.  This  work  is  not  of  a  popular 
character,  but  will  be  invaluable  to  future  historians  of  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  and  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Churches. 


370  A   SELECT    BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

Cummins,  (Mrs.)  G.  D.  Memoir  of  G.  D.  Cummins,  First  Bishop 
of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church.  12mo.  pp.  544.  N.Y. 
Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co.  1879.  $2.50. 

It  contains  an  excellent  account  of  the  origin  and  organization  of 

the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church. 

REFORMED  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA  (DUTCH). 
Demurest,  David  D.     History  and  Characteristics  of  the  Reformed 
Protestant  Dutch   Church.      12mo.      pp.   xxviii,   221.     N.Y. 
1856,  1859.     $1.00. 

REFORMED  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  (GERMAN). 
Mayer,  Lewis.     The   History  of  the  German   Reformed  Church- 
Vol.  I.     8vo.     pp.  477.     Ph.     Lip.     1851. 

Cf.  article  by  E.  V.  Gerhart  in  Bib.  Sac.,  vol.  XX.,  1863. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC. 

Clarke,  R.  H.    Lives  of  the  Deceased  Bishops  of  the  Catholic  Church 

in  the  United  States.    2  v.    8vo.   N.Y.   P.  O'Shea.   1872.   $8.00. 

Murray,  J.  0.     A  Popular  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 

United  States.     8vo.     pp.  619.     2d  edition.     N.Y.     Sadlier  & 

Co.     1876.    $2.50. 

An  Appendix  contains  valuable  statistical  tables  and  biographical 
sketches.  Cf.  Le  Clercg,  translated  by  t>hea,  Cin.  ($12.00);  and 
Parkman,  Jesuits  in  North  America. 

SHAKERS. 

Evans,  F.  W.  Compendium  of  the  Origin,  History,  etc.,  of  the 
United  Society  of  Believers  in  Christ's  Second  Coming.  16mo. 
N.Y.  App.  1859. 

UNITED  BRETHREN. 

Lawrence,  John.  History  of  the  Church  of  the  United  Brethren  in 
Christ.  2  vols.  in  one.  8vo.  Dayton,  O.  U.  B.  Pub.  House. 
$2.50. 

Cf.  Spayth,  Circleville,  Ohio;  Conference  Office,  1851. 

UNITARIAN. 

Ellis,  Geo.  E.  A  Half  Century  of  the  Unitarian  Controversy.  B. 
American  Unitarian  Association.  1859.  $1.50. 

Cf .  Ware,  American  Unitarian  Biography.    2  v.    B.    1850-51. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  371 

UNIVERSALIST. 

Thomas,  Abel  C.     A  Century  of  Universalism.     B.     Universalist 
Publishing  House. 

Cf .  Adams,  Fifty  Notable  Years ;    and  Eddy,  Universalism  in 

America. 


VI.   SPECIAL  TOPICS. 
1.  ART. 

Heaphy,  Thomas.  The  Likeness  of  Christ.  Being  an  Inquiry  into 
the  Verisimilitude  of  the  Received  Likeness  of  Our  Blessed 
Lord.  Edited  by  Wyke  Bayliss.  With  12  colored  plates. 
Folio,  pp.  78.  L.  David  Bogue.  1880.  £3  6s. 

Cf.  Schaff,  History  of  the  Christian  Church.    N.Y.    1882.    Vol.  I, 

pp.  167-170. 

Jameson,  (Mrs.)  Anna.     Sacred  and  Legendary  Art.     Portrait  of 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.     2  v.,  32mo,  $3.00;  6  v.,  8vo,  L.,  Longm., 

£5  15s.  Qd. 
Popular. 
Jameson,  (Mrs.)  Anna,  and  Eastlake,  (Lady).     The  History  of  Our 

Lord  as  Exemplified  in  Works  of  Art.     Illustrated.     2  v.     L. 

Longm.     2d  edition.     1865.     42s. 

Liibke,  W.    Ecclesiastical  Art  in  Germany  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

High  authority. 
Norton,  C.  E.     Studies  of  Church  Buildings  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

8vo.     pp.  331.     N.Y.     H.     1880.     $3.00. 

The  result  of  careful  study.    Written  in  good  style. 
Poole,  Geo.  A .     History  of  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  in  England. 

8vo.     L.     1848.     $3.50. 
Scott,  G.  G.     Lectures  on  the  Rise  and  Development  of  Mediaeval 

Architecture.     Illustrated.     2  v.     8vo.     pp.  xv,  365 ;  xvi,  347. 

L.     Murray.     1879.     42s. 
d.     An  Essay  on  the  History  of   English   Church  Architecture, 

prior  to  the  Separation  of  England  from  the  Roman  Obedience. 

Illustrated.      4to.      pp.  195.     L.     Simpkin,  Marshall,  &  Co 

1881. 


372  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

Tyrwhitt,  R.  St.  John.  The  Art  Teaching  of  the  Primitive  Church, 
L.  Soc.  8vo.  7s.  Qd. 

2.  BIOGRAPHY. 
A.  Biblical.  —  I.  Lives  of  Christ. 

Ebrard,  A.  Wissenschaftliche  Kritik  der  Evangelischen  Ge- 
schichte.  Condensed  translation.  8vo.  Ed.  Clark.  1869. 
10s.  Qd. 

Against  Strauss,  Bruno  Bauer,  etc. 

Ewald,  H.  Geschichte  Christus'  und  seiner  Zeit.  (Vol.  5  of  his  His- 
tory of  Israel.)  Tr.  by  0.  Glover.  Cambridge.  Bell.  1865.  9s. 

Farrar,  Frederic  W.    Life  of  Christ.    2  v.    L.    1874.    About  thirty 

editions  have  since  appeared,  many  of  them  in  America.     One 

is  illustrated.     $4.00. 
Geikie,  C.     The  Life  and  Words  of  Christ.     L.     Strahan  &  Co. 

1878.    2v.    Illustrated.    30s.     Several  editions.    N.Y.    Munro. 

Paper,  40  cts. 
Hardwick,  Chas.      Christ  and  Other   Masters.     L.     Macm.     4th 

edition.     1875.     10s.  Qd. 

A  comparison  of  Christ  with  founders  of  Eastern  religions. 

Keim,  Theodore.  Geschichte  Jesu  von  Nazara.  Zurich.  1867-72. 
3  v.  Translated  into  English  by  Geldart  and  Ransom.  L. 
W.  &  N.  2d  edition.  1873-79.  2  v.  10s.  Qd.  each. 

Based  chiefly  upon  Matthew.    In  the  preparation  of  this  work  the 

Fourth  Gospel  was  not  used. 

Lange,  John  Peter.  The  Life  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ :  a  Complete 
Examination  of  the  Origin,  Contents,  and  Connection  of  the 
Gospels.  New  edition.  4  v.  8vo.  Ph.  1872.  $10.00. 

By  a  distinguished  German  commentator. 

Neander,J.A.  W.  The  Life  of  Jesus.  Translated  by  McClintock 
and  Blumenthal.  N.Y.  H.  1848.  $2.50. 

"A  positive  refutation  of  Strauss."  —  P.  SCHAFF. 

Pressense,  E.  de.     Jesus  Christ :  His  Times,  Life,  and  Work.     4th 
edition.     Revised.     8vo.     L.     1871.     $3.40. 
Written  in  reply  to  Renan. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTOBY.  373 

Renan,  Ernest.  Life  of  Jesus.  Translated  by  E.  Wilbour.  12mo. 
pp.  376.  N.Y.  Carleton  &  Co.  1864,  1870.  $1.75. 

Renan  professed  to  write  without  any  other  passion  than  a  very 
keen  curiosity.  "This  book  created  even  a  greater  sensation 
than  the  Leben  Jesu  of  Strauss,  but  is  very  superficial,  and  turns 
the  gospel  history  into  a  novel  with  a  self-contradictory  and  im- 
possible hero.  Eloquent,  fascinating,  superficial,  and  contradic- 
tory."—  P.  SCHAFF.  "In  it  the  learning  of  the  Orientalist  vied 
with  the  enrapturing  rhetoric  of  the  fine  writer  to  warp  the  judg- 
ment of  sentimental  amateurs." — J.  F.  HURST  in  "Crook's  & 
Hurst's  Theological  Encyclopaedia  and  Methodology." 

Strauss,   D.    F.      Life   of  Jesus.      Translated   by  Marian  Evans 
(George  Eliot).     L.     1846.     3  v.     Republished  in  N.Y.,  1850. 
Authorized  translation.     2d  edition.     2  v.     8vo.    pp.  xxii,  440 ; 
iv,  439.     L.     W.  &  X.     1879.     24s. 
Refuted  by  Neander,  q.v. 

Weiss,  Bernard.  The  Life  of  Christ.  Translated  by  John  W.  Hope- 
3v.  8vo.  Ed.  1883-4.  $3.00  each. 

Liberal  evangelical.    Dr.  Weiss  is  professor  of  theology  at  Berlin. 

Young,  J.     The  Christ  of  History.     L.  &  N.Y.     1855.     5th  edi- 
tion.    1868.     L.     Strahan.     6s. 
Evangelical.    Popular. 

These  are  excellent  lives  of  Christ,  original  and  translated,  by 
Lyman  Abbott,  S.  J.  Andrews,  H.  W.  Beecher,  C.  E.  Caspari, 
Howard  Crosby,  C.  F.  Deems,  Z.  Eddy,  C.  J.  Ellicott,  Fleet- 
wood,  Wm.  Hanna,  Carl  Hose,  Mrs.  Jameson  ("as  exemplified 
in  works  of  art  '*),  E.  H.  Plumptre,  Chr.  Fr.  Schmid,  D.  Schenkel, 
and  /.  R.  Seeley.  Cf .  G.  Uhlhorn  :  Modern  Representatives  of 
the  Life  of  Jesus.  Translated  by  Grinnell.  16mo.  B.  L.  &  B. 
1868. 

II.  Lives  of  the  Apostles. 

Baur,  Ferd.  Chr.  Paul  the  Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ.  Translated 
by  Allan  Menzies.  2  v.  L.  W.  &  N.  1873  and  1875.  10*. 
Gd.  each. 

The  standard  work  of  the  Tubingen  school. 


#74  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

Conybeare  and  Howson.  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  L.  1853. 
Many  reprints,  both  English  and  American. 

A  standard  work;  of  especial  value  to  Christian  teachers. 
Farrar,  F.   W.      Life  and  Work  of  St.  Paul.     2  v.     L.  &  N.Y. 
1879,  and  other  editions.     N.Y.     Funk  &  Wagnalls.     1880. 
Paper,  50  cts. 

Canon  Farrar  is  a  learned  and  rhetorical  writer. 

Pearson  (-Bp.).  Annales  Paulini.  Works.  Also  separately. 
Cambridge.  1824. 

Renan,  E.     St.  Paul.     Translated  by  Ingersoll  Lockwood.     12mo. 
pp.  422.     N.Y.     Carleton.     1869.    $1.75. 
Entertaining,  but  fanciful  and  illogical. 

Tholuck,  Aug.  The  Life,  Character,  and  Style  of  the  Apostle 
Paul.  In  Selections  from  German  Literature  (pp.  1-72).  Trans- 
lated by  B.  B.  Edwards  and  E.  A.  Park.  8vo.  pp.  iv,  472. 
Andover.  Gould,  Newman,  &  Saxon,  1839. 

B.   General.  —  I.  Collections. 

Baring-Gould,  Sabine.     Lives  of  the  Saints.     15  v.     12mo.     N.Y. 

Pott,  Young,  &  Co.     1879.     $2.50  each. 

Butler,  Alban.  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  Martyrs,  and  other  Saints. 
12  v.  24mo.  L.  Duffy.  1866.  First  American  edition,  2  v. 
8vo.  Baltimore.  J.  Murphy  &  Co.  1850.  $7.00. 

Roman  Catholic. 

Hook,  W.  F.  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  from  St. 
Augustine  to  Juxon.  12  v.  8vo.  L.  R.  Bentley  &  Son. 
1860-76.  15s.  each  ;  vol.  12,  21s. 

In  two  series.  The  last  volume  is  an  index  to  the  others. 
Piper,  Ferdinand.  Lives  of  the  Leaders  of  our  Church  Universal 
from  the  Days  of  the  Succession  of  the  Apostles  to  the  Present 
Time.  Translated  from  the  German,  with  valuable  American 
additions,  by  McCracken.  8vo.  J.  &  T.  Clark.  1880.  2  v. 
pp.  430,  443.  $3.00. 

For  popular  use,  this  is  the  best  book  of  Christian  biography.    Its 
tone  is  Protestant,  but  not  sectarian. 

Sprague,  W.  B.     See  General  Histories,  under  United  States. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  375 

Stephen,  (Sir)  J.     Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography.     1st  edition. 

1850;  4th,  1860.     L.     Longm.     7s.  6rf. 

Few  subjects,  but  well  treated. 
Tulloch,  John.     Leaders  of  the  Reformation  :  Luther,  Calvin,  Lati- 

mer,   and  Knox.     2d  edition.     8vo.     Ed.     W.   Blackwood  & 

Sons.     1860.     3d  edition,  enlarged,  $3.00. 

II.  Individual. 

Ambrose,  St.     R.  Thornton.     Soc.     2s. 
Anselm,  St.     By  R.  W.  Church.     Macm.    $1.75. 
Arnold,  Thomas.     A.  P.  Stanley.     Scr.     1880.     $2.50. 
Augustine,  St.     E.  L.  Cults.     Soc.     1880.     Cf.  Clark,  Pott,  75  cts. 
Id.     Possidius  (personal  friend  of  Augustine)  ;  Pressense,  in  Smith 

and  Wace ;  Schajf,  1854 ;  Poriarty  and  Tulloch,  in  Encycl.  Brit. 
Basil,  St.     R.  T.  Smith.     Soc.     1879.     2s. 
Becket.     J.  A .  Froude  in  Nineteenth  Century,  1877. 
Id.     By  E.  A.  Freeman  in  Contemporary  Review,  1878. 

A  reply  to  Fronde's  article  in  the  Nineteenth  Cent. ;  more  favorable. 
Bede.     G.  F.  Browne.     Soc.     2s. 

Calvin.     Wm.  Blackburn.   2  books.   Ph.   Presb.  Bd.   70  and  75  cts. 
Chrysostom,   John.      Aug.   Neander.      Translated    by   Staplelon. 

Bohn.     1845. 

Id.     W.  R.  W.  Stephens.    L.,  1872;  2d  ed.,  1880.    L.,  Murray,  12s. 
Constantine.     E.  L.  Cults.     L.,  Soc.     N.Y.,  1881. 
Erasmus.     R.  B.  Drummond.     2  v.     S.  &  E.     21s. 
Farel.     Wm.  Blackburn.     Ph.     Presb.  Bd.  of  Pub.     $1.50. 
Fox,  George.     J.  Marsh.     B.     1847. 
Id.     S.  M.  Janney.     Ph.     Lip.     $1.25. 
Gregory  the  Great.    J.  Barmby.     Soc.     2s. 
Gregory  VII.     A.  F.  VUlemani.     3  v.     Bentley.     26s. 

Huss,  John.     E.  H.  Gillett.   2  v.     N.Y.     1864.     $7.00. 

A  learned  monograph. 
Id.     A.  H.  Wratislaw.     L.     Soc.     3s.  Qd. 


376  A   SELECT   BiBLIOGUAPHY   OF 

Hutten,  Ulrichvon.  D.F.Strauss.  L.  Daldy  &  Isbister.  1874.  10s. 6d 
Jerome.     E.  L.  Cults.     12mo.     Soc.     1878.     2s. 
Julian.     Randall.     L.     1879. 

Kempis,  Thomas  a,  and  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life.     S. 
Kettlewell.     8vo.     2  v.     N.Y.     Put.     1882.    $8.00. 

Knox,  John.     Thomas  McCrie.     Ph.     Presb.  Bd.  of  Pub.     $2.00. 

Cf.  Carlyle,  Hero  Worship. 
Laud.     Peter  Bayne  in  the  Chief  Actors  in  the  Puritan  Revolution. 

Originally  in  the  Contemporary  Review.     Cf .  Mozley's  Essays, 

2  v.,  L.,  24s. ;  and  /.  E.   T.  Roger's  Historical  Gleanings,  L., 

Macm.,  $1.75. 

Leo  the  Great.     C.  H.  Gore.     Soc.     2s. 
Louis,  St.,  and  Calvin.     F.  Guizot.     8vo.     Macm.     6s. 
Luther.     Audin  (strongly  denunciatory);  Peter  Bayne,  T.  Carlyle, 

in  Hero  Worship  ;  J.  A.  Froude  (Longm.,  1883);  Julius  Kcestlin 

(Longm.,  16s.)  ;  Rein,  based  on  Kcestlin  and  translated  by  Beli- 

ringer  (N.Y.,  Funk  &  Wagnalls,  25  cts.  and  $1.00)  ;  and  /.  H. 

Treadwell  (Put.,  $1.00).     Cf.  Essays  by  Mozley. 
Patrick,  St.     Wm.  M.  Blackburn.     Ph.    Presb.  Bd.  of  Pub.    $1.00. 
Savonarola.     W.  R.  Clark.     3s.  6d.     N.Y.,  1879,  Pott,  $1.50. 
Id.     Villari. 
Schleiermacher,  F.  E.     Autobiography  and  Letters.     L.     S.  &  E. 

1860. 

Sixtus  V.     Baron  Hubner.     L.     Longm.     24s. 
Swedenborg.     Hobart,  B.,  1832;  R.  L.  Tafel  (translated;  the  most 

complete)  ;  Worcester,  B.,  R.,  1883.    $2.00. 
Theresa,  St.     L.     Macm.     $2.00. 
Wesley,  John.     Robert  Southey,  with  notes  by  S.  T.  Coleridge.   N.Y. 

1820. 
Id.     Luke  Tyerman.     3  v.     N.Y.     H.     1872.     $7.50. 

The  best  that  has  yet  been  written. 
Id.     R.  Denny  Urlin.     (The   Churchman's  Life  of  Wesley.)     L. 

Soc.     3s.  Qd.     Cf.  J.  Hampson,  2  v. ;  H.  Moore,  2  v. ;  and  R. 

Watson  (best  edition,  with  notes  in  reply  to  Southey,  6s.). 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  377 

Whitefleld,  George.  Luke  Tyerman.  2  v.  N.  Y.  Randolph  &  Ca 
1878.  $2.00. 

Wyclif .     G.  V.  Lechler,  tr.  by  Peter  Larimer.    2  v.    L.    Paul.    21s. 

Id.  J.  E.  T.  Rogers.  Vol.  II.  of  Historical  Gleanings.  L.  Macm. 
$1.75. 

Zwingli.  Jean  Grob.  Translated.  12mo.  N.Y.  Funk  &  Wag- 
nails.  25  cts.  and  $1.00.  Cf.  Blackburn.  Presb.  Bd.,  $1.25. 

Xavier.  Coleridge.  Also  Venn,  and  Bouhours  (translated  by 
Dryden,  1688). 

3.  CHURCH  AND  STATE. 

Bryce,  James.     Holy  Roman  Empire.     L.     Macm.     7s.  Qd. 

"  Invaluable  for  clearing  up  the  relations  of  Germany  and  Rome." 
—  C.  K.  ADAMS. 

Geffcken,  Heinrich.    Church  and  State;  their  Relations  Historically 

Considered.     Translated  and  edited,  with  the  assistance  of  the 

author,  by  Edward  Fairfax  Taylor.     2  v.     8vo.    L.    1877.    42s. 

"  For  knowledge,  acumen,  and  fairness,  the  work  is  worthy  of  high 

praise."  —  C.  K.  ADAMS.    The  author,  a  conservative  Protestant, 

is  professor  of  international  law  in  the  University  of  Strasburg. 

Thompson,  R.  W.  The  Papacy  and  the  Civil  Power.  8vo.  X.Y. 
H.  1876.  $3.00. 

"Carefully  prepared.  .  .  .  A  powerful  indictment  of  the  temporal 
policy  of  the  Catholic  Church.  It  contains  several  ecclesiastical 
documents  that  enhance  its  value.  ...  It  is  the  best  easily  acces- 
sible sketch  of  the  subject  of  which  it  treats."  —  C.  K.  ADAMS. 

4.  COUNCILS. 

Bungener,  L.  F.     History  of  the   Council   of   Trent.     Edited  by 

John  McClintock.     12mo.     N.Y.     H.     1855.     $1.50. 
Mefele,  C.  J.     A  History  of  the  Councils  of  the  Church.     4  v.  have 
been   translated  by    W.  R.   Clark  and  H.  N.   Ozenham.     Ed. 
T.  &  T.  Clark.     1871-1884.    $4.80  each. 

By  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  great  learning.  Independent, 
original,  authoritative.  Vol.  V.  covers  the  Nestorian  and  Eutychian 
controversies.  Cf.  E.  H.  Landon  (Anglican) .  12mo.  L.  184G. 


378  A  SELECT    BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

Pusey,  E.  B.  The  Councils  of  the  Church,  from  the  Council  of 
Jerusalem,  A.D.  51,  to  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  A.D.  381 ; 
chiefly  as  to  their  Constitution,  but  also  as  to  their  Object  and 
History.  8vo.  L.  1857.  $3.50. 

By  the  Tractarian  leader.    Died  1882. 

Sarpi,P.  Council  of  Trent.  Tr.  by  N.  Brent.  4to.  pp.  889.  L.  1676. 
"  A  work  of  genius,  concerning  which  see  Dr.  Johnson's  account 
in  his  '  Lives  of  Eminent  Persons  ' ;  also  a  charming  account  in 
Howell's  'Venetian  Life.'"  —  C.  K.  ADAMS.  "Ranked  by  Mac- 
aulay  with  Thucidides."  — W.  F.  ALLEN. 

5.  CREEDS. 

Schajf,  P.     The  Creeds  of  Christendom,  with  a  History  and  Critical 

Notes.     8vo.     3  v.     I.  The  History  of  Creeds;   II.  The  Greek 

and  Latin  Creeds,  with   Translations ;    III.    The   Evangelical 

Protestant  Creeds,  with  Translations.    N.Y.    H-    1877.    .f  15.00. 

Of  great  value. 

6.  DOCTRINES. 

Alger,  William  R.  A  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future 
Life.  1st  edition,  Ph.,  1864.  6th  edition,  8vo,  pp.  676,  N.Y., 
Widdleton,  1869.  New  edition,  with  additions,  1878,  $3.50. 

A  valuable  bibliography,  by  Dr.  Ezra  Abbot,  is  appended. 
Donaldson,  James.     A  Critical  History  of  Christian  Literature  and 
Doctrine,  from  the  Death  of  the  Apostles  to  the  Nicene  Council. 
3  v.     8vo.     London.     1864-66.    $12.00. 

Corner,  J.  A .  History  of  the  Development  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Person  of  Christ.  With  a  Review  of  the  Controversies  on  the 
Subject  in  Britain  since  the  Middle  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 
Translated  by  W.  Lindsay  Alexander,  D.D.,  and  D.  W.  Simon, 
D.D.  5v.  8vo.  pp.  xviii,  467;  viii,  544;  456;  viii,  462; 
xxviii,  502.  Ed.  T.  &  T.  Clark.  1862-64.  £2  12s.  Qd. 

"  By  far  the  most  learned  and  instructive  discussion  of  the  theme 
which  has  ever  been  undertaken.  .  .  .  The  book  is  a  fine  example 
of  the  mingling  of  intellectual  freedom  with  due  reverence,  and  of 
the  spirit  of  science  with  genuine  devoutness."  —  G.  P.  FISHER,  in 
th«  The  Independent,  July  24, 1884. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  379 

Id.     History  of  Protestant  Theology;    particularly  in  Germany. 
Translated  by  G.  Robson  and  Sophia  Taylor.     2  v.     8vo.     pp. 
xxiii,444;  511.     Ed.     T.  &  T.  Clark.     1871.     21s. 
By  a  popular  aiid  profound  theologian,  who  died  in  1884. 

Hagenbach,  K.  R.  Text-Book  of  the  History  of  Doctrine.  The 
Edinburgh  translation  of  C.  W.  Bush,  revised,  with  additions 
from  the  fourth  German  edition,  by  Henry  B.  Smith,  D.D.  2  v. 
8vo.  pp.  478,  558.  N.Y.  Sheldon  &  Co.  1861-62.  $6.00. 

The  additions  are  from  Neander,  Gieseler,  Baur,  etc.  An  edition 
of  Hagenbach' s  History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  translated  from  the 
fifth  German  edition,  with  an  introduction  by  E.  H.  Plumptre,  is 
published  by  T.  &  T.  Clark,  Edinburgh.  Vol.  H.  8vo.  pp.  466. 
1880.  83.00. 

Neander,  A .  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Christian  Dogmas.  Trans- 
lated by  /.  E.  Ryland.  2  v.  12mo.  pp.  356,  264.  L.  H.  G. 
Bohn.  1858.  $3.00. 

Mackay,  R.  W.  The  Tubingen  School  and  its  Antecedents.  A 
Review  of  the  History  and  Present  Condition  of  Modern  The- 
ology. 8vo.  L.  W.  &  N.  1863. 

Reuss,  Edward.  History  of  Christian  Theology  in  the  Apostolic 
Age.  Translated  by  Annie  Harwood.  With  preface  and  notes 
bjR.W.Dale.  2v.  8vo.  L.  Hodder & Stoughton.  1872-74.  24s. 

Shedd,  W.  G.  T.  A  History  of  Christian  Doctrines.  3d  edition. 
2v.  8vo.  pp.  viii,  412 ;  vi,  508.  N.Y.  Scr.  1869.  85.00. 

Clear,  Calvinistic,  and  vigorous.  Dwells  on  theology,  anthropol- 
ogy, and  soteriology,  and  entirely  omits  the  doctrines  that  relate 
to  the  sacraments.  There  are  other  important  omissions,  which 
greatly  lessen  its  value. 

Tulloch,  John.  Rational  Theology  and  Christian  Philosophy  in 
England  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  2  v.  8vo.  Ed.  Black- 
woods.  1872.  28s. 

Wiggers,  G.  F.  An  Historical  Presentation  of  Augustinianism 
and  Pelagianism  from  the  Original  Sources.  Translated  from 
the  German,  with  notes  and  additions,  by  Ralph  Emerson.  8vo. 
pp.  383.  Audover.  Draper.  1840.  $1.25. 


380  A   SELECT   BIBLJOGEAPHY   OF 

7.  FICTION. 
(Illustrating  Periods  of  Church  History.) 

Anonymous.  Arius,  the  Libyan.  12mo.  N.Y.  App.  1884.  $1.50. 
Entertaining,  but  in  many  historical  points  inaccurate.  See  Boston 
Watchman  for  Aug.  14,  1884. 

Anonymous.     The  Days  of  Knox.     L.     1869.     $3.00. 
Banvard,  Joseph.     Priscilla;  or,  Trials  for  the  Truth.    An  Historic 

Tale  of  the  Puritans  and  the  Baptists.    8vo.   pp.  406.    B.    1855. 
Bungener,  L.     The  Priest  and  the  Huguenot.     An  historical  novel 

of  the  time  of  Louis  XV.     B.     Lothrop.     1874.     $1.50. 
Id.  The  Preacher  [Bourdaloue]  and  the  King  [Louis  XIV.].  $1.50. 
Carpenter,  Boyd.     Narcissus.     A  Tale  of  Early  Christian  Times. 

8vo.     L.     Soc.     3s  Qd. 

By  the  author  of  "  The  Chronicles  of  the  Schonberg-Cotta  Family." 
Charles,  (Mrs.)  Elizabeth.  Diary  of  Kitty  Trevilyan.  A  Story  of 

the  Times  of  Whitfield  and  the  Wesleys.     12mo.     pp.  304.     L. 

T.  Nelson  &  Sons.     1865.     N.Y.     Dodd.     1864.    $1.00. 
Clarke,  James  Freeman.      The  Legend  of  Thomas  Didymus,  the 

Jewish    Sceptic.      [Life  of   Christ  as  it  appeard  to  co-tempo- 
raries.]    12mo.     pp.448.     B.     L.  &  S.     1881.     $1.75. 
Croly,  Geo.     Salathiel.     Cincinnati.     U.  P.  James.     $1.50. 
Davies,  Samuel.     From  Dawn  to  Dark  in  Italy.     A  Tale  of  the 

Reformation  in  the  16th  Century.  Ph.  Presb.  Bd.  of  Pub.  $1.25. 
Ebers,  G.     Homo  Sum.     [A  tale  of  the  early  Anchorites.]     N.Y. 

Munro.     10  cents. 
Eliot,  George  [Marion  Evans'].  Romola.  [Savonorola.]  N.Y.  Munro. 

15  cents. 

"  Deserving  all  the  high  encomiums  it  has  received."  —  N.  PORTER. 
Hale,  E.  E.  In  His  Name.  [Waldenses.]  B.  1877.  40  cents. 
Kingsley,  C.  Hypatia.  [Alexandria.]  L.  and  N.Y.  Macm.  $1.75. 

Lockhart,  J.  G.  Valerius.  Ed.  and  L.  Blackwood  &  Son.  1849.  3s 
Excellent. 

Mille,J.de.  Helena's  Household.  8vo.  N.Y.  Carter.  1869.  $1.50. 
"  Gives  an  interesting  and  faithful  picture  of  the  workings  of 
Christianity  in  a  Roman  household,  and  interweaves  also  much  of 
the  history  of  a  part  of  the  first  and  second  centuries . "  —  N.  PORTER. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  381 

Neicman,  (Cardinal)  J.  H.   Callista.   8vo.   L.  B.  &  O.  1873.  5s.  Qd. 
Reade,  C.     Cloister  and  the  Hearth.   [Germany,  15th  cent.]   2s.  Qd. 
Spindler,  C.     The  Jew.     [Council  of  Constance,  1414-18.]     N.Y. 
H.    75  cents. 

Wallace,  Lew.     Ben-Hur,  a  Tale  of  the  Christ.     N.Y.     H.     $1.50. 

Recognized  as  a  work  of  unusual  worth. 

Ware,  W.  Aurelian,  Julian, ..  and  Zenobia.  3  v.  N.Y.  Miller. 
82.00  each. 

"  Excellent  examples  of  good  historical  tales  of  the  earlier  Christian 

centuries."  —  N.  PORTER. 

Webb,  (Mrs.).     Pomponia;  or,  the  Gospel  in  Csesar's  Household. 

[Rome,  Nero,  and  Britain.]     Ph.     Presb.  Bd.  of  Pub.    $  1.25. 
Id.     Alypius  of  Tagaste.     Ph.     Presb.  Bd.  of  Pub.     $1.25. 
Wiseman,  (Cardinal)  N.  Fabiola.  [The  Catacombs.]  N.Y.  Sadlier. 
$1.50. 

8.  LITURGIES. 

Hammond,  C.  E.  Liturgies,  Eastern  and  Western :  being  a  Re- 
print of  the  Texts,  either  Original  or  Translated,  of  the  most 
representative  Liturgies  of  the  Church  from  various  sources. 
With  Introduction,  Notes,  and  a  Liturgical  Glossary.  12mo.  L. 
Macm.  1878.  10s.  Qd. 

Humphrey,  Wm.  G.  An  Historical  and  Explanatory  Treatise  on 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  12mo,  cloth.  L.  Bell  &  Sons. 
1856,  1875.  4s.  Qd. 

Excellent. 

Maskell,  W.  The  Ancient  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  ac- 
cording to  the  Uses  of  Sarum,  Bangor,  York,  and  Hereford,  and 
the  Modern  Roman  Liturgy,  arranged  in  parallel  columns.  3d 
ed.  8vo.  pp.  Ixxxiv,  338.  Oxford.  Clarendon  Press.  1882.  15s. 
Neale,  J.  M.  Essays  on  Liturgiology  and  Church  History.  8vo. 
pp.  527.  L.  Saunders,  Otley,  &  Co.  1863  and  1867. 

Scholarly.  Dr.  P.  Schaff  says  of  Neale  that  he  was  a  "  most 
learned  Anglican  ritualist  and  liturgist,  who  studied  the  Eastern 
liturgies  daily  for  thirty  years,  and  almost  knew  them  by  heart.  .  .  . 
The  .  .  .  work  of  ...  the  English  Episcopal  divine,  Freeman,  .  .  . 
treats  much  of  the  old  liturgies,  with  a  predilection  for  the  West- 
ern, while  Neale  has  an  especial  reverence  for  the  Eastern  ritual." 


382  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

Neale,  J.  M.  The  Liturgies  of  St.  Mark,  St.  James,  St.  Clement, 
St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Basil,  or  according  to  the  use  of  the 
Churches  of  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  Constantinople.  L.  1859 
(in  the  Greek  original,  and  the  same  liturgies  in  an  English 
translation,  with  an  introduction  and  appendices,  also  in  L.,  1859). 
2d  edition.  12mo.  L.  Hayes.  1868.  6s. 
Of  permanent  value. 

9.  MARTYRS. 

See  works  by  Fox  (standard,  comprehensive,  Protestant ;  best  edi 
tion  by  G.  Townsend,  8  v.,  L.,  1843),  Bulkley,  Chateaubriand 
(translated  by  0.  W.  Wight;  not  critical,  very  poetical),  and 
Pressense  (translated,  L.,  1871). 

10.  MIRACLE  PLAYS  AND  MYSTERIES. 

See  Wm.  Hone,  1823 ;  J.  P.  Jackson  (Passion  Play  at  Oberammer- 
gau,  historical  introduction),  1873,  and  Marriott  (A  Collection 
of  English  Miracle  Plays  or  Mysteries),  1858. 

• 
11.  MISSIONS. 

Christlieb,  Theodor.  Protestant  Foreign  Missions.  Translated  from 
the  Fourth  German  edition,  by  David  Allen  Read.  16mo,  pp. 
264,  N.Y.,  Randolph,  1880 ;  16mo,  pp.  280,  B.,  Cong.  Pub.  Soc. 

HUM). 

Compact,  but  complete.    Sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  general 
reader. 
Maclear,  G.  F.  Apostles  of  Mediaeval  Europe.  8vo.  L.  Macm.  4s.  Qd. 

Protestant;  standard. 

Merivale,  C.  Conversion  of  the  West.  5  v.  Maps.  16mo. 
I.  The  Continental  Teutons,  by  C.  Merivale,  pp.  180 ;  II.  The 
Celts,  by  G.  F.  Maclear,  pp.  189 ;  HI.  The  English,  by  G.  F. 
Madear,  pp.  186 ;  IV.  The  Northmen,  by  G.  F.  Maclear,  pp.  202 ; 
V.  The  Sclavs,  by  G.  F.  Maclear,  pp.  ii,  202.  L.  Soc.  N.Y. 
Pott,  Young,  &  Co.  1879.  60  cts.  each. 

Seelye,  J.  H.  Christian  Missions.  12mo.  pp.  207.  N.Y.  Dodd, 
Mead,  &  Co.  1876.  $1.00. 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  383 

Smith,  Thomas.  History  of  Mediaeval  Missions.  12mo.  L.  Hamilton. 
1880.  4s.  Qd. 

Protestant;  standard. 

12.  MONASTIC  ORDERS. 

The  development  of  Monastic  institutions  is  impartially  and  skil- 
fully traced  by  Milman,  in  his  History  of  Latin  Christianity. 

Montalembert,  Count  de.  The  Monks  of  the  West,  from  St.  Bendict 
to  St.  Bernard.  Translated  from  the  French.  7  v.  8vo.  Ed. 
and  L.  Blackwoods.  1860-70.  Vols.  6  and  7,  25s.  B.  Noonan. 
2  v.  $6.00. 

"  The  ablest  plea  that  has  ever  been  made  for  the  several  orders  of 
monks,  being  at  once  scholarly,  sympathetic,  and  conscientious." 
—  C.  K.  ADAMS.  Cf.  Sir  James  Stephen's  Ecclesiastical  Essays, 
and  Mrs.  Jameson's  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders. 

Ruffher,  H.  The  Fathers  of  the  Desert;  or,  an  Account  of  the 
Origin  and  Practice  of  Monkery  among  the  Heathen  Nations, 
its  passage  into  the  Church ;  and  some  wonderful  stories  of  the 
fathers  concerning  the  primitive  monks  and  hermits.  2  v.  N.Y. 
1850. 

The  author,  a  Presbyterian,  is  by  no  means  friendly  to  monastic 
institutions. 

13.  RATIONALISM. 

Hurst,  John  F.     History  of  Rationalism.     Embracing  a  Survey  of 

the  Present  State  of  Protestant  Theology.     With  appendix  of 

literature.     8vo.    N.Y.    Scr.    1865.    9th  rev.  ed.    1875.   83.50. 

Lecky,  W.  E.  H.    History  of  the  Rise  and  Influence  of  the  Spirit  of 

Rationalism  in  Europe.   2  v.  8vo.  L.  &  N.  Y.  App.  1865.  04.00. 

"  His  sympathies  are  obviously  rationalistic,  though  he  usually 

succeeds  in  maintaining  a  moderate  and  judicious  spirit."  —  C.  K. 

ADAMS. 

14.  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Abbott,  Lyman,  and  Conant,  T.  J.  A  Dictionary  of  Religious 
Knowledge,  for  Popular  and  Professional  Use ;  comprising  full 
Information  on  Biblical,  Theological,  and  Ecclesiastical  Sub- 
jects. With  nearly  One  Thousand  Maps  and  Illustrations, 
Royal  8vo.  pp.  1000  +.  N.Y.  H.  $6.00. 
Adapted  to  the  needs  of  general  students. 


384  A   SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF 

Bingham,  Joseph.  Origines  Ecclesiastics ;  or,  the  Antiquities  of 
the  Christian  Church.  With  two  sermons  and  two  letters  on 
the  Nature  and  Necessity  of  Absolution.  Edited  by  R.  Bingham. 
8vo.  L.  Macm.  Also  in  7  vols.  in  Bingham's  complete  works. 

9  v.    1840.     L.    W.  Straker.   1843.     10  v.    Oxford.    Clarendon 
Press.    1855.   £3  6s. 

Standard. 

Blunt,  J.  H.  Dictionary  of  Sects,  Heresies,  Ecclesiastical  Parties, 
and  Schools  of  Thought.  Imperial  8vo.  pp.  648.  $10.00. 

Anglican.  Not  always  unprejudiced  and  impartial. 
Edwards,  B.  B.,  and  Brown,  J.  N.  Encyclopaedia  of  Religious 
Knowledge;  comprising  Dictionaries  of  the  Bible,  Theology, 
Biography,  Religious  Denominations,  Ecclesiastical  History, 
and  Missions.  Illustrated.  Imperial  8vo.  pp.  1276.  Brat- 
tleboro,  Vt.  1850. 

"  This  valuable  work  comprises  a  complete  library  in  itself,  on  the 
above  subjects,  from  the  most  authentic  sources  ;  with  copious 
original  articles  by  the  ablest  American  writers,  —  Episcopal,  Con- 
gregationalist,  Presbyterian,  Methodist,  and  Baptist.''  — NICHOLAS 
TBUBNEB,  in  his  "  Bibliographical  Guide  to  American  Literature," 
published  in  London,  1869.  Now  superseded,  in  most  points,  by 
Abbott  and  Conant,  McClintock  and  Strong,  and  Schaff-Herzog. 

McClintock,  John,  and  Strong,  J.  A.  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical,  Theo- 
logical, and  Ecclesiastical  Literature.  Maps.  Illustrated. 

10  v.     8vo.     N.Y.     H.     1867  sqq.     $5.00  each. 

Contains  many  articles  on  American  biography  and  history,  —  too 
large  a  proportion  being  upon  Methodist  subjects,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  church  relations  of  its  editors.  Notwithstanding 
this  imperfection,  and  the  inferior  literary  qualifications  of  some 
of  its  contributors,  it  is  the  largest  and  most  useful  work  of  the 
kind  that  has  yet  appeared  in  the  English  language. 

Schaff,  Philip.  A  Religious  Encyclopaedia;  or,  Dictionary  of  Bib- 
lical, Historical,  Doctrinal,  and  Practical  Theology.  3  v.  Royal 
8vo.  N.Y.  Funk  &  Wagnalls.  1882-84.  $6.00  each. 

A  condensed  and  otherwise  greatly  modified  translation  of  the 
Real-Encyclopadie  fiir  Protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche,  by 
Herzog,  Pitt,  and  HaucTc.  In  the  work  of  translation,  Dr.  Schaff 
was  aided  by  his  son,  D.  S.  Schaff,  and  Samuel  Jackson.  The  work 
is  convenient  and  authoritative. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  385 

Smith,  Henry  B.  History  of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  (16)  Chrono- 
logical Tables.  X.Y.  Scr.  1860.  $5.00. 

Useful  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  church  history :  also  valua- 
ble for  reference  and  review.    Nowhere  can  be  found  so  clear  and 
impartial  an  outline  of  American  church  history  to  A.D.  1858. 
Smith,    William.     Bible  Dictionary.     3  v.     L.     1860-64.     Ameri- 
can edition  much  enlarged  and  improved  by  H.  Hackett  and  E. 
Abbot.     4v.     pp.3667.    N.Y.    Kurd  &  Houghton.    1868-1870. 
$20.00. 

Valuable  for  topics  in  early  church  history.  An  excellent  bibli- 
ography of  ecclesiastical  history  concludes  the  article  Church. 
Another  standard  Bible  Dictionary  is  Kitto's,  edited  by  W.  L. 
Alexander.  3  v.  Ed.  A.  &  C.  Black.  1862-65.  £2  2s. 

Smith,  W.,  and  Cheetham,  S.  A  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities. 
The  History,  Institutions,  and  Antiquities  of  the  Christian 
Church ;  Being  a  Continuation  of  the  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible." 
2  v.  Royal  8vo.  L.  Murray.  1875-1880.  $7.00. 

All  that  Dr.  Smith  has  edited  is  valuable. 

Smith,    William,  and    Wace,   Henry.     A   Dictionary  of   Christian 
Biography,  Literature,  Sects,  and  Doctrines.     5  v.,  royal  8vo,  L., 
Murray,  31s.  Qd.  each.     4  v.,  B.,  L.  &  B.,  1877  sqq.,  $5.50  each. 
' '  By  far  the  best  patristic  biographical  dictionary  in  the  English 
or  any  other  language.    A  noble  monument  of  the  learning  of  the 
Church  of  England,  to  which  nearly  all  the  contributors  belong." 
—  P.  SCHAFF. 

15.  SACRED  SEASONS. 

Grant,  Alex.  H.  The  Church  Seasons,  Historically  and  Poetically 
Illustrated.  2d  edition.  Revised.  12mo.  pp.  506.  N.Y. 
Whittaker.  1881.  $1.50. 

16.  SYMBOLISM. 

Audsley,  W.  and  G.     Handbook  of  Christian  Symbolism.    Illus- 
trated.  Small  4to.   pp.  x,  145.     L.   Day  &  Son.   1865.  12s.  Qd. 
0  'Brien,  John.     A  History  of  the  Mass  and  its  Ceremonies  in  the 
Eastern  and  the  Western  Church.     12mo.     N.Y.     4th  edition. 
Revised,     pp.  xix,  414.     Cath.  Pub.  Soc.  Co.     1879.     $1.50. 
More  comprehensive  than  its  title  would  indicate.    It  aims  to  point 
out  the  symbolical  meaning  of  all  the  ceremonies  of  the  eastern  and 
the  western  churches. 


APPENDIX. 


CRUSADES. 

As  originally  published,  this  bibliography  contained,  under 
"Crusades"  (p.  357),  a  reference  to  Professor  W.  F.  Allen's 
general  bibliography,  which  was  included  in  the  same  volume. 
Professor  Allen  gives  the  following  authorities:  — 

Cox,  (Sir)  G.  W.   The  Crusades.   (Epoch  Series.)  N.Y.  Scr.  $1.00. 
A  short  history,  well  written. 

Gray,  G.  Z,     The  Children's  Crusade.     B.     Houghton.     $1.50. 

Michaud,J.F.   History  of  the  Crusades.  4v.  N.Y.  Redfield.  $3.75. 
Standard. 

Sybel,  H.  von.     History  and  Literature  of  the  Crusades.     C.  &  H. 
10*.  6rf. 

Scholarly. 


INDEX   TO   AUTHORS. 


PAGE. 

Abbot,  E 352,385 

Abbott,  L 373,  383 

Adams 371 

Alger 378 

Allen 345 

Alzog 345 

Andrews 352,373 

Anonymous     .     .     .   353,376,380 

Arnold 346 

Atkinson 368 

Audin     ........    878 

Audsley,  G 385 

Audsley,  W 385 

Aycrigg 369 

Bacon 367 

Backus 367 

Badger 345 

Baird,  H.  M 364 

Baird,  R 365,  366 

Balmes 358 

Banvard 380 

Baring-Gould 358,  374 

Barmby 375 

Baumgarten 350 

Baur 350,352,373 

Bayliss 371 

Bayne 376 

Beard 361 

Bede 362 

Beecher      373 

Belcher  .  .    366 


PAG*. 

Bingham,  J 384 

Bingham,  R 384 

Blackburn  ....    346,  375,  376 

Blunt 350,362,384 

Bonhours 377 

Bossuet 359 

Brewer 363 

Brown,  J.  N 384 

Browne,  G.  F 375 

Brownlow 354 

Bryce 356 

Bulkley 382 

Bungener 377,380 

Butler 374 

Carlyle 361,  376 

Carpenter  ...    ^     ...     380 

Caspar! 373 

Charles  (Mrs.) 380 

Chateaubriand 382 

Choules 364 

Church 366,375 

Christlieb 382 

Clark,  W.  R 376 

Clarke,  J.  F 380 

Clarke,  R.  H 370 

Cobbett 362 

Coleridge 376,377 

Conant 383 

Conybeare 374 

Cox 358,386 

Creighton 366 


388 


INDEX   TO   AUTHORS. 


PAGE. 

Crichton 366 

Crojy 380 

Crooks 343 

Crosby 373 

Cummins  (Mrs.) 370 

Cutts 375,376 

D'Agincourt 354 

Dale 379 

D'Aubigne.     .     .     .    359,365,366 

Davies 380 

Davis  (Mrs.) 344 

Deems 373 

Delitzsch 350 

Demarest 370 

Dexter 367 

Dixon 362 

Dollinger    .     .      346,351,355,358 

Donaldson 355, 378 

Dorner 378,379 

Dowling 343 

Drummond 375 

Eastlake  (Lady) 371 

Ebers 380 

Ebrard 372 

Eddy 373 

Edwards 384 

"  Eliot,  George  "   (Marion 

Evans) 380 

Ellicott 373 

Ellis 370 

Emerson 379 

Eusebius 351 

Evans,  F.  W 370 

Evans  (Miss)  ......    380 

Evagrius 352 

Ewald 372 

Farrar 351,372,374 

Fisher 351,359 


PAGK. 

Fleetwood 373 

Fox 382 

Freeman 375 

Froude 359,375,376 

Fuller 362 

Geffcken 377 

Geikie     .  ...     .363,372 

Gerhar 370 

Gibbon 351 

Gieselei 346 

Gillett 362,369,375 

Gore 376 

Grant 385 

Gray 386 

Greene 356 

Grob 377 

Guericke 346 

Guizot 376 

Hackett 385 

Haddan 363 

Hagenbach &i  379 

Hale 388 

Hallam 356 

Hammond  ...          ...     381 

Hampson 376 

Hanna 373 

Hardwick   .     .      347,356,359,372 

Base 347,  373 

Hatch 351 

Hauck 384 

Hausser 369 

Hawks 369 

Hazeline 368 

Heaphy 371 

Hefele 377 

Herford 363 

Herzog ...    384 

Hitchcock  .  .     343 


INDEX   TO   AUTHORS. 


389 


PAGE. 

Hobart 376 

Hodge 369 

Hodgson 368 

Hone 382 

Hook 374 

Howson 374 

Hiibner 376 

Humphrey 381 

Hurst     .    .    .      343,347,359,383 

Jackson,  G.  A 352 

Jackson,  J.  P 382 

Jackson,  S.  M 352 

Jameson  (Mrs.)   .     .    371,  373,  383 

Jones 358 

Joselan 344 

Keim 372 

Kettlewell 376 

Kingsley 380 

Kitto 385 

Koestlin 376 

Krasinski 365 

Kurtz 347 

Landon 377 

Lacroix 356 

Lange 362,372 

Lawrence,  E 347,  366 

Lawrence,  J 370 

Lea 347,357 

Lechler 377 

Lecky 383 

Le  Clerg 370 

Lightfoot 362 

Lipsius 362 

Llorente 361 

Lloyd 346,365 

Lockhart 380 

Liibke 371 

Luudy 364 


PAOK. 

Macaulay 361 

Mackay 379 

Maclear 382 

Malan 344 

Hansel  ...    *    ....    866 

Mant 365 

Marriott 382 

Marsh 375 

Martyn 365 

Maskell 381 

Mason 366 

Mather 367 

Maurice 352 

Mayer 370 

McClellan 352 

McClintock 377,384 

McCracken 374 

McCrie 365,366,376 

Merle,  J.  H.  (D'Aubigne), 

359,  365,  366 

Merivale 382 

Michaud 386 

Mille 380 

Milligan 362 

Milman 347, 362, 367 

Milner 347 

Momsen 364 

Montalembert 383 

Moore 376 

Mosheim 348,353 

Moss 367 

Mozley 376 

Murray 370 

Neal,  D 363 

Neale,  J.  M.  .  344, 361,  381, 382 
Neander  .  348, 363,  372,  375,  379 
Newman  .  .  .  .348,365,381 
Northcote  .  .  364 


390 


INDEX   TO   AUTHORS. 


PAGE. 

Norton 352,371 

Newton 343 

O'Brien  .     . 385 

Padre-Marchi 354 

Parker 354 

Parkman 370 

Pearson 374 

Penn 368 

Perret 354 

Perry,  G.  G 363 

Perryr  W.  S 369 

Piper 374 

Pitt 384 

Plumptre 373,379 

Poole,  G.  A 371 

Poole,  R.  L 364 

Poriarty 375 

Possidius 375 

Pressense,     353,  364,  372,  375,  382 

Priestley 352,353 

Punchard 367 

Pusey 378 

Randall 376 

Ranke 360 

Reade 381 

Reichel 369 

Rein 376 

Renan     ...      352, 353, 373, 374 

Reuss 379 

Robinson 349 

Rogers 376,377 

Rossi 354 

Ruffner 383 

Rule 361 

Rupp 367 

Sanday 352 

Sarpi 378 

Schaff     .     .  343, 349,  376,  878,  384 


PAGK. 

Schliermacher 376 

Schmid,  C.  F 373 

Schenkel 373 

Schmucker 368 

Schweinitz 369 

Scott 371 

Seebohm 360 

Seeley,  J.  R 373 

Seelye,  J.  H 382 

Seiss 368 

Shedd 379 

Short 363 

Simcox 353 

Simpson 368 

Smiles 364 

Smith,  H.  B.    .     .     .   343,  379,  385 

Smith,  P 349 

Smith,  R.  T 375 

Smith,  T 383 

Smith,  W 385 

Smyth,  E.  C 344 

Socrates 352 

Southey 376 

Soyres 355 

Sozomen 352 

Spalding 360 

Spayth 370 

Spencer 363 

Sprague 367 

Spindler 381 

Stanley,    344,   345,  349,  363,  366, 

376 

Stenhouse  (Mrs.)      ....  368 
Stephen  (Sir)  J.  .     .    361,375,383 

Stephens,  W.  R.  W.      ...  375 

Stevens,  A 368 

Stubbs 363 

Stewart  .                             ,     .  367 


INDEX  TO  AUTHORS. 


391 


PAGE. 

Strauss 352,373,376 

Strong 384 

Strype 363 

Summerbell 367 

Sybel 386 

Tafel 376 

Taylor 364 

Theodoret 352 

"Theodonw" 362 

Tholuck 374 

Thomas 371 

Thompson 377 

Thornton 375 

Townsend 382 

Treadwell 376 

Tregelles 261 

Trench 357 

Tucker 368 

Tulloch 375,379 

Tyerman 376,377 

Tyrwhitt 372 

Uhlhorn 365,366,373 

Ullmann 357 

Urlin 376 

Van  Oosterzee 352 

Venn 377 

Villari 376 

Vaiemani 375 

Wace  .  385 


FAGK. 

Waddington 349,367 

Wadsworth 364 

Wagstaff 368 

Wallace 381 

Ware(H.-?) 370 

Ware,  W 381 

Webb 381 

Washburn 349 

Watson 376 

Weiss,  B 373 

Weiss,  C 364 

Westcott 362 

Whately 350 

Wheaton 366 

White,  H 364 

White,  J 350 

White  (Bp.  W.) 369 

Wiggers 379 

Wilberforce 369 

Wiseman 360,381 

Wood 368 

Woodhouse 357 

Worsfold 358 

Wortabet 345 

Wratislaw 375 

Wycliffe 357 

Wylie 358 

Young,  J 373 

Yonge  (Miss) 366 


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VIII.    Rosmini's  Method  in  Education.    "The  most  important  pedagogical  work 

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IX.    Hall's  Bibliography  of  Education.     Covers  every  department.    #1.50. 
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With  an  introduction  by  Oscar  Browning.     $1.00. 
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XXXII.-  Roger  Ascham's  The  Scholemaster.    $1.25. 
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